Goal functions, orientors and indicators (GoFOrIt's) in ecology. Application and functional aspects-Strengths and weaknesses

Ecological Indicators

Volumn 28, Issue , 2013, Pages 31-47

  Nielsen, S N ^a   Jorgensen, S E ^b  

^a Energy Academy   (Denmark)

^b UNIVERSITY OF COPENHAGEN   (Denmark)

Author keywords

Ascendency; Eco exergy; Ecosystem; Goal function; Indicator; Indirect effect; Network; Orientor; Power

Indexed keywords

ECOLOGY; INDICATORS (INSTRUMENTS); INFORMATION THEORY; NETWORKS (CIRCUITS); PHILOSOPHICAL ASPECTS; THERMODYNAMICS;

ASCENDENCY; ECO EXERGIES; GOAL FUNCTIONS; INDIRECT EFFECTS; ORIENTOR; POWER;

ECOSYSTEMS;

BIOENERGETICS; ECOLOGICAL THEORY; ECOPHYSIOLOGY; ECOSYSTEM APPROACH; ECOSYSTEM MODELING; ENVIRONMENTAL INDICATOR; MONITORING SYSTEM; NETWORK ANALYSIS; PERCEPTION; THEORETICAL STUDY; THERMODYNAMICS;

EID: 84881185462     PISSN: 1470160X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolind.2012.12.015     Document Type: Article

References (197)

1. Allen, P.M., 2001. What is complexity science? Knowledge of the limits to knowledge. Emergence 3 (1), 24-42.
2. Allen, T.F.H., Starr, T.B., 1982. Hierarchy, Perspectives for Ecological Complexity. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, 310 p.
3. Aller, R.C., 1982. The effects of macrobenthos on chemical properties of marine sediments and overlying waters. In: McCall, P.L., Tevesz, M.J.S. (Eds.), Animal-Sediment Relations: The Biogenic Alteration of Sediments. Plenum Press, N.Y., pp. 53-102.
4. Allesina, S., Bondavalli, C., 2004. WAND: an ecological network analysis user-friendly tool. Environ. Model. Software 19, 337-340. (Pubitemid 38285662)
5. Aoki, I., 1982. Radiation entropies in diffuse reflection and scattering and application to solar radiation. J. Phys. Soc. Jpn. 51, 4003-4010. (Pubitemid 13526616)
6. Aoki, I., 1983. Entropy production on the earth and other planets of the solar system. J. Phys. Soc. Jpn. 52, 1075-1078.
7. Aoki, I., 1987a. Entropy balance in lake Biwa. Ecol. Model. 37, 235-248.
8. Aoki, I., 1987b. Entropy budgets of deciduous plant leaves and a theorem of oscillating entropy production. B. Math. Biol. 49, 449-460.
9. Aoki, I., 1987c. Entropy balance of White-tailed deer during a winter night. B. Math. Biol. 49, 321-327.
10. Aoki, I., 1989. Holological study of lakes from an entropy viewpoint-lake Mendota. Ecol. Model. 45, 81-93. (Pubitemid 19307441)
11. Aoki, I., 1990. Monthly variations of entropy production in lake Biwa. Ecol. Model. 51, 227-232.
12. Aoki, I., 1995. Entropy production in living systems-from organisms to ecosystems. Thermochim. Acta 25, 359-370.
13. Aoki, I., 1998. Entropy and exergy in the development of living system: a case study of lake-ecosystems. J. Phys. Soc. Jpn. 67, 2132-2139.
14. Aoki, I., 2012. Entropy Principle for the Development of Complex Biotic Systems. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
15. Atlan, H., 1974. On a formal definition of organization. J. Theor. Biol. 45, 295-304.
16. Bastianoni, S., 1998. A definition of 'pollution' based on thermodynamic goal functions. Ecol. Model. 113, 163-166. (Pubitemid 29025940)
17. Bastianoni, S., Marchettini, N., 1997. Emergy/exergy ratio as a measure of the level of organization of systems. Ecol. Model. 99, 33-40.
18. Bastianoni, S., Pulselli, F.M., Rustici, M., 2006. Exergy versus emergy flow in ecosystems: is there an order in maximizations? Ecol. Indicat. 6 (1), 58-62. (Pubitemid 43220367)
19. Bendoricchio, G., Jorgensen, S.E., 1997. Exergy as goal function of ecosystems dynamic. Ecol. Model. 102 (1), 5-15. (Pubitemid 27433819)
20. Bendoricchio, G., Palmeri, L., 2005. Quo vadis ecosystem? Ecol. Model. 184 (1), 5-17.
21. Birk, S., Bonne, W., Borja, A., Brucet, S., Courrat, A., Poikane, S., Solimini, A., van de Bund, W., Zampoukas, N., Hering, D., 2012. Three hundred ways to assess Europe's surface waters: an almost complete overview of biological methods to implement the Water Framework Directive. Ecol. Indicat. 18, 31-41.
22. Boltzmann, L., 1872. Weitere Studien ueber das Waermegleichgewicht unter Gasmolekuelen. Wien. Ber. 66, 275-370.
23. Boltzmann, L., 1905. The Second Law of Thermodynamics (Populare Schriften. Essay No.3 (Address to Imperial Academy of Science in 1886)). Reprinted in English in: Theoretical Physics and Philosophical Problems, Selected Writings of L. Boltzmann. D. Riedel, Dordrecht.
24. Bossel, H., 1977. Orientors of nonroutine behavior. In: Bossel, H. (Ed.), Concepts and Tools of Computer-Assisted Policy Analysis. Birkhäuser, Basel, pp. 227-265.
25. Bossel, H., 1998. Ecological orientors: emergence of basic orientors in evolutionary self-organization. In: Müller, F., Leupelt, M. (Eds.), Eco Targets, Goal Functions and Orientors. Springer Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg, pp. 19-33, Chapter 2.2.
26. Bossel, H., 2008. Goal functions and orientors. In: Encyclopedia of Ecology. Elsevier, pp. 1746-1754.
27. Brillouin, L.,1966. Science and Information Theory. Academic Press, New York.
28. Brooks, D.R., Wiley, E.O., 1988. Evolution as entropy. In: Toward a Unified Theory of Biology. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 415 pp.
29. Caner, K., 2007. EcoNet: a new software for ecological modeling, simulation and network analysis. Ecol. Model. 208 (1), 3-8.
30. Carnot, S., 1824. Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat (translated 1943). ASME, New York, 107 pp.
31. Christensen, V., Pauly, D., 1992. Ecopath II A software for balancing steady-state ecosystem models and calculating network characteristics. Ecol. Model. 61, 169-185. (Pubitemid 23400180)
32. Clausius, R., 1850a. Über die bewegende Kraft der Wärme. Part I. Annalen der Physik 79, 368-397.
33. Clausius, R., 1850b. Über die bewegende Kraft der Wärme. Part II. Annalen der Physik 79, 500-524.
34. Clausius, R., 1864. Abhandlungungen über die mechanische Warmetheorie, Vol. 1. F. Vieweg, Braunschweig, Vol. 2 (1867).
35. Clements, F.E., 1916. Plant Succession: An Analysis of the Development of Vegetation. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, DC.
36. Cowles, H.C., 1899. The ecological relations of the vegetation on the sand dunes of Lake Michigan. Bot. Gaz. 27, 95-117, pp. 167-202, 281-308, 361-391.
37. Dame, R.F., Patten, B.C., 1981. Analysis of energy flows in an intertidal oyster reef. Mar. Ecol. Progr. Ser. 5, 115-124.
38. Darwin, C., Wallace, A., 1858. On the tendency of species to form varieties; and on the perpetuation of varieties and species by natural means of selection. J. Proc. Linn. Soc. London Zool. 3, 45-62.
39. Darwin, C., 1859. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. John Murray, London.
40. Dawkins, R., 1976. The Selfish Gene. Oxford University Press, New York City.
41. Dawkins, R., 1982. The Extended Phenotype. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
42. Ebeling, W., Engel, A., Feistel, R., 1990. Physik der evolutionsprozesse. Akademieverlag, Berlin, p. 371.
43. Elsasser, W.M., 1987. Reflections on a Theory of Organisms. Holism in Biology. The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London, p. 160.
44. Evans, R.B., Crellin, G.L., Tribus, M., 1966. Thermoeconomic considerations of sea water demineralisation. In: Spiegler, K.S. (Ed.), Principles of Desalination. Academic Press, New York-London, pp. 21-75.
45. Fath, B.D., Borrett, S.R., 2006. A Matlab function for network environ analysis. Environ. Model. Software 21, 375-405. (Pubitemid 43053011)
46. Fath, B.D., Patten, B.C., 1998. Network synergism: emergence of positive relations in ecological systems. Ecol. Model. 107, 127-143. (Pubitemid 28228959)
47. Fath, B.D., Patten, B.C., 1999. Review of the foundations of network environ analysis. Ecosystems 2, 167-179. (Pubitemid 29250491)
48. Fath, B.D., Patten, B.C., 2000. Goal functions and network theory. In: Presented in Porto Venere May 2000 at the Second Conference on Energy.
49. Fath, B.D., Patten, B.C., Choi, J.S., 2001. Complementarity of ecological goal functions. J. Theor. Biol. 208, 493-506. (Pubitemid 32575038)
50. Finn, J.T., 1976. Measures of ecosystem structure and function derived from analysis of flows. J. Theor. Biol. 56, 363-380.
51. Finn, J.T., 1980. Flow analysis of models of the Hubbard Brook ecosystem. Ecology 61 (3), 271-562.
52. Fonseca, J.C., Marques, J.C., Paiva, A.A., Freitas, A.M., Madeira, V.M.C., Jorgensen, S.E., 2000. Nuclear DNA in the determination of weighting factors to estimate exergy from organism's biomass. Ecol. Model. 126, 179-190.
53. Gibbs, J.W., 1902. Elementary Principles in Statistical Mechanics. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York.
54. Glansdorff, R., Prigogine, I., 1971. Thermodynamic Theory of Structure, Stability and Fluctuations. Wiley, London (1971? Sciubba, check årstal).
55. Gleason, H.A., 1917. The structure and development of the plant association. Bull. Torrey Botanical Club 44, 463-481.
56. Haken, H., 1988. Information and Self-Organization. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
57. Hall, C.A.S., 1995. Maximum Power. University Press of Colorado, Niwot, 394 pp.
58. Hannon, B., 1973. The structure of ecosystems. J. Theor. Biol. 41, 535-546.
59. Herendeen, R., 1989. Energy intensity residence time, exergy, and ascendency in dynamic ecosystems. Ecol. Model. 48, 19-44. (Pubitemid 20423768)
60. Higashi, M., Burns, T.P. (Eds.), 1991. Theoretical Studies of Ecosystems: The Network Perspective. Cambridge University Press, New York.
61. Hull, D.L., 1974. Philosophy of Biological Science. Prentice-Hall, p. 148.
62. Jaynes, E.T., 1957a. Information theory and statistical mechanics. Phys. Rev. 106 (4), 620-630.
63. Jaynes, E.T., 1957b. Information theory and statistical mechanics II. Phys. Rev. Ser. II 108 (2), 171-190.
64. Johnson, L., 1995. The far-from-equilibrium ecological hinterlands. Chapter 3, pages 51-103. In: Patten, B.C., Jorgensen, S.E. (Eds.), Complex Ecology. The Part-Whole Relation in Ecosystems. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, p. 705.
65. Jorgensen, S.E., 1982. A holistic approach to ecological modelling by application of thermodynamics. In: Mitsch, W., et al. (Eds.), Systems and Energy. Ann Arbor, p. 192.
66. Jorgensen, S.E., 1986. Structural dynamic model. Ecol. Model. 31, 1-9.
67. Jorgensen, S.E., 1988. Use of models as experimental tools to show that structural changes are accompanied by increased exergy. Ecol. Model. 41, 117-126. (Pubitemid 19319235)
68. Jorgensen, S.E., 1990. Ecosystem theory ecological buffer capacity, uncertainty and complexity. Ecol. Model. 52, 125-133.
69. Jorgensen, S.E., 1992a. Development of models able to account for changes in species composition. Ecol. Model. 62, 195-208. (Pubitemid 23401137)
70. Jorgensen, S.E., 1992b. Parameters ecological constraints and exergy. Ecol. Model. 62, 163-170.
71. Jorgensen, S.E., 1994. Review and comparison of goal functions in system ecology. Vie Milieu 44, 11-20.
72. Jorgensen, S.E., 2002. Integration of Ecosystem Theories: A Pattern, 3rd ed. Kluwer Academic Publishers, p. 420.
73. Jorgensen, S.E., Mejer, H.F., 1977. Ecological buffer capacity. Ecol. Model. 3, 39-61.
74. Jorgensen, S.E., Mejer, H.F., 1979. A holistic approach to ecological modelling. Ecol. Model. 7, 169-189.
75. Jorgensen, S.E., Nielsen, S.N. The properties of the ecological hierarchy and their application as ecological indicators. Ecol. Indicat., in press.
76. Jorgensen, S.E., Svirezhev, Y.M., 2004. Towards a Thermodynamic Theory for Ecological Systems. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 366 pp.
77. Jorgensen, S.E., Patten, B.C., Stra?skraba, M., 2000. Ecosystems emerging: 4. Growth Ecol. Model. 126 (2-3), 249-284.
78. Jorgensen, S.E., Costanza, R., Fu-Liu, Xu., 2004. Handbook of Ecological Indicators for Assessment of Ecosystem Health, p. 436.
79. Jorgensen, S.E., Fath, B.D., Bastianoni, S., Marques, J.C., Müller, F., Nielsen, S.N., Patten, B.C., Tiezzi, E., Ulanowicz, R.E., 2007. A New Ecology-Systems Perspective. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 288 pp.
80. Jorgensen, S.E., Ladegaard, N., Debeljak, M., Marques, J.C., 2005. Calculations of exergy for organisms. Ecol. Model. 185, 165-175. (Pubitemid 40564497)
81. Jorgensen, S.E., Ludovisi, A., Nielsen, S.N., 2010. The free energy and information embodied in the amino acid chains of organisms. Ecol. Mode 221, 2388-2392.
82. Jorgensen, S.E., Nielsen, S.N., Mejer, H., 1995. Emergy environ, exergy and ecological modelling. Ecol. Model. 77, 99-109. (Pubitemid 26447580)
83. Kay, J.J., 1984. Self Organization in Living Systems [Ph.D. Thesis]. Systems Design Engineering. University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada.
84. Kay, J.J., Schneider, E.D., 1992. Thermodynamics and measures of ecological integrity. In: Proc. Ecological Indicators. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 159-182.
85. Koestler, A., 1967. The Ghost in the Machine. Penguin Group.
86. Kullback, S., Leibler, R.A., 1951. On information and sufficiency. Ann. Math. Statistics 22 (1), 79-86.
87. Kullback, S., 1959. Information Theory and Statistics. Peter Smith, Gloucester, MA, 399 p.
88. Leontief, W.W., 1936. Quantitative input-output relation in the economic system of the United States. Rev. Econ. Statistics 18, 105-125.
89. Leontief, W.W., 1951. The Structure of American Economy, 1919-1939; An Empirical Application of Equilibrium Analysis. Oxford University Press, New York, NY.
90. Leontief, W.W., 1966. Input-Output Economics. Oxford University Press, New York, NY.
91. Liebig, J., 1840. Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology. Taylor and Walton, London.
92. Lotka, A.J., 1922a. Contribution to the energetics of evolution. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 8, 147-150.
93. Lotka, A.J., 1922b. Natural selection as a physical principle. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 8, 151-154.
94. Lotka, A.J., 1925. Elements of Physical Biology. Williams and Wilkins Company, Baltimore, 460 pp.
95. Ludovisi, A., 2004. Biotic and abiotic entropy production in lake ecosystems. Ecol. Model. 179, 145-147. (Pubitemid 39027296)
96. Ludovisi, A., 2006. Use of thermodynamic indices as ecological indicators of the development state of lake ecosystems: specific dissipation. Ecol. Indicat. 6, 30-42. (Pubitemid 43220365)
97. Ludovisi, A., Jorgensen, S.E., 2009. Comparison of exergy found by a classical thermodynamic approach and by the use of the information stored in the genome. Ecol. Mode 220, 1897-1903.
98. Ludovisi, A., Pandolfi, P., Taticchi, M.I., 2005. The strategy of ecosystem development: specific dissipation as an indicator of ecosystem maturity. J. Theor. Biol. 235, 33-43.
99. Ludovisi, A., Poletti, A., 2003. Use of thermodynamic indices as ecological indicators of the development state of lake ecosystems: 1. Entropy production indices. Ecol. Model. 159, 203-222. (Pubitemid 36087405)
100. Luvall, J.K., Kay, J.J., Fraser, R.F., 2001. Thermal remote sensing and the thermodynamics of ecosystem development. In: Ulgiati, S., Brown, M.T., Giampietro, M., Herenden, R.A., Mayumi, K. (Eds.), Advances in Energy Studies. Exploring Supplies, Constraints and Strategies. SG Editorial Padova, Italy, pp. 147-158.
101. Margalef, R., 1968. Perspectives in Ecological Theory. University of Chicago Press, 111 pp.
102. Margalef, R., 1996. Information and uncertainty in living systems a view from ecology. Biosystems 38, 141-146. (Pubitemid 26090387)
103. Margalef, R., 1997. Rapports historiques et dynamiques entre diversité et biodiversité. GEOBIOS 21, 107-111. (Pubitemid 127704431)
104. Marques, J.C., Pardal, M.A., Nielsen, S.N., Jorgensen, S.E., 1997. Analysis of the properties of exergy and biodiversity along an estuarine gradient of eutrophication. Ecol. Mode 102, 155-167. (Pubitemid 27433828)
105. Martyushev, L.M., Seleznev, V.D., 2006. Maximum entropy production principle in physics chemistry and biology. Phys. Rep. 426, 1-45. (Pubitemid 43216625)
106. Mauersberger, P., 1979. On the role of entropy in water quality modelling. Ecol. Model. 7, 191-199.
107. Mauersberger, P., 1981. Entropie und freie Enthalpie in aquatische Ökosysteme. Acta Hydrodynamica 26, 67.
108. Mauersberger, P., 1982. Rates of primary production respiration and grazing in accordance with the balances of energy and entropy. Ecol. Model. 17, 1-10. (Pubitemid 13286327)
109. Mauersberger, P., 1983. General principles in deterministic water quality modelling. In: Orlob, G.T. (Ed.), Mathematical Modeling of Water Quality: Streams, Lakes and Reservoirs (International Series on Applied Systems Analysis, 12). Wiley, New York, pp. 42-115.
110. Mauersberger, P., 1985. Basic physical and cybernetic principles contributing to systems analysis in hydrology. Annu. Rev. Automatic Programm. 12 (part 2), 58-63. (Pubitemid 17644355)
111. Mauersberger, P., 1987. Two approaches to generalized ecosystem modelling: thermodynamic and cybernetic. Ecol. Model. 39, 161-169.
112. Mauersberger, P., 1995. Entropy control of complex ecological processes. In: Patten, B.C., Jorgensen, S.E. (Eds.), Complex Ecology: The Part-Whole Relation in Ecosystems. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, pp. 130-165.
113. Mauersberger, P., Straskraba, M., 1987. Two approaches to generalized ecosystem modelling: thermodynamic and cybernetic. Ecol. Model. 39, 161-169.
114. May, R.M., 1973. Mass and energy flow in closed ecosystems: a comment. J. Theor. Biol. 39, 155-163.
115. Mayr, E., 1961. Cause and effect in biology. Science 134 (3489), 1501-1506.
116. Mickulecky, D.C., 1985. Network thermodynamics in Biology and ecology: an introduction. In: Ulanowicz, R.E., Platt, T. (Eds.), Ecosystem Theory for Biological Oceanography. Canadian Bulletin of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, vol. 213. Ottawa, pp. 163-175.
117. Morowitz, H.J., 1968. Energy Flow in Biology. Biological Organisation as a Problem in Thermal Physics. Academic Press, NewYork, U.S, 179 pp.
118. Müller, F., 2005. Indicating ecosystem and landscape organization. Ecol. Indicat. 5 (4), 280-294.
119. Müller, F., Fath, B.D., 1998. The physical basis of ecological goal functions-an integrative discussion. In: Müller, F., Leupelt, M. (Eds.), Eco Targets, Goal Functions, and Orientors. Springer, Berlin-Heidelberg-New York, pp. 269-285.
120. Müller, F., Jorgensen, S.E., 2000. Ecological orientors-a path to environmental applications of ecosystem theories. In: Jorgensen, S.E., Müller, F. (Eds.), Handbook of Ecosystem Theories and Management. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, pp. 561-576.
121. Müller, F., Leupelt, M. (Eds.), 1998. Eco Targets, Goal Functions and Orientors. Springer Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg, 618 pp.
122. Müller, F., Schrautzer, J., Reiche, E.W., Rinker, A., 2006. Ecosystem based indicators in retrogressive successions of an agricultural landscape. Ecol. Indicat. 6, 63-82. (Pubitemid 43220368)
123. Nicolis, G., Prigogine, I., 1977. Self Organization in Non-Equilibrium Systems. Wiley-Interscience, New York, 491 pp.
124. Nielsen, S.N., 1992. Strategies for structural-dynamical modelling. Ecol. Model. 63, 91-102.
125. Nielsen, S.N., 1994. Modelling structural dynamical changes in a Danish shallow lake. Ecol. Model. 73 (1-2), 13-30. (Pubitemid 2086667)
126. Nielsen, S.N., 2000. Thermodynamics of an ecosystem interpreted as a hierarchy of embedded systems. Ecol. Model. 135, 279-289. (Pubitemid 32102788)
127. Nielsen, S.N., 2007. Towards an ecosystem semiotics: some basic aspects for a new research programme. Ecol. Complex. 4 (3), 93-101. (Pubitemid 47042598)
128. Nielsen, S.N., 2009. Thermodynamic constraints of life as downward causation in ecosystems. Cybernetics and Human Knowing 16 (1), 27-49.
129. Nielsen, S.N., Emmeche, C., (submitted for publication). Ontic Openness as Key Factor in the Evolution of Biological Systems.
130. Nielsen, S.N., Ulanowicz, R.E., 2011. Ontic openness: an absolute necessity for all developmental processes. Ecol. Model. 222 (16), 2908-2912.
131. Odum, E.P., 1959. Fundamentals of Ecology, 2nd ed. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 546 pp.
132. Odum, E.P., 1969. The strategy of ecosystem development. Science 164, 262-270.
133. Odum, E.P., 1971a. Fundamentals of Ecology, 3rd ed. W.B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, 360 p.
134. Odum, H.T., 1971b. Environment, Power, and Society. Wiley Interscience Publishers, New York, 331 pp.
135. Odum, H.T., 1983. System Ecology. Wiley Interscience Publishers, New York, 510 pp.
136. Odum, H.T., 1988. Self-organization transformity, and information. Science 242, 1132-1139.
137. Odum, H.T., 1989. Experimental study of self-organization in estuarine ponds. In: Mitsch, W.J., Jorgensen, S.E. (Eds.), Ecological Engineering: An Introduction to Eco-technology. Wiley, New York.
138. Odum, H.T., 1996. Environmental Accounting: Emergy and Environmental Decision Making. J. Wiley and Sons, New York.
139. Odum, H.T., Pinkerton, R.C., 1955. Time's speed regulator: the optimum efficiency for maximum power output in physical and biological systems. Am. Sci. 43, 331-343.
140. O'Neill, R.V., DeAngelis, D.L., Waide, J.B., Allen, T.F.H., 1986. A Hierarchical Concept of Ecosystems. Princeton University Press, 286 pp.
141. Onsager, L., 1931a. Reciprocal relations in irreversible processes, part 1. Phys. Rev.Lett. 37, 405-426.
142. Onsager, L., 1931b. Reciprocal relations in irreversible processes, part 2. Phys. Rev.Lett. 38, 2265-2279.
143. Patricio, J., Ulanowicz, R., Pardal, M.A., Marques, J.C., 2004. Ascendency as an ecological indicator: a case study of estuarine pulse eutrophication. Est., Coast. Shelf Sci. 60, 23-35. (Pubitemid 38592101)
144. Patten, B.C., 1978. Systems approach to the concept of environment. Ohio J. Sci. 78, 206-222.
145. Patten, B.C., 1981. Environs: the super-niches of ecosystems. Am. Zool. 21, 845-852.
146. Patten, B.C., 1982. Environs: relativistic elementary particles or ecology. Am. Nat. 119, 179-219. (Pubitemid 13283098)
147. Patten, B.C., 1985. Energy cycling in the ecosystem. Ecol. Model. 28, 1-71.
148. Patten, B.C., 1991. Network ecology: indirect determination of the life-environment relationship in ecosystems. In: Higashi, M., Burns, T.P. (Eds.), Theoretical Ecosystem Ecology: The Network Perspective. Cambridge University Press, London, pp. 288-351.
149. Patten, B.C., 1992. Energy emergy and environs. Ecol. Model. 62, 29-69.
150. Patten, B.C., 1998. Network orientors: steps towards a cosmography of ecosystems: orientors for directional development, self-organization and autoevolution. Chapter 2.8, pages 137-160. In: Müller, F., Leupelt, M. (Eds.), Eco Targets, Goal Functions and Orientors. Springer Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg, p. 618.
151. Patten, B.C., 2006. Network perspectives on ecological indicators and actuators: enfolding, observability, and controllability. Ecol. Indicat 6, 6-23. (Pubitemid 43220363)
152. Patten, B.C. Holoecology. The unification of nature by network indirect effects. Complexity in Ecological Systems Series. Columbia University Press, New York, (unpublished manuscript).
153. Patten, B.C., Bosserman, R.W., Finn, J.T., Cale, W.G., 1979. Propagation of cause in ecosystems. In: Patten, B.C. (Ed.), Systems Analysis and Simulation in Ecology, Vol. IV. Academic Press, New York, pp. 457-579.
154. Patten, B.C., Auble, G.T., 1981. System theory of the ecological niche. Am. Nat. 117, 893-922.
155. Patten, B.C., Jorgensen, S.E. (Eds.), 1995. Complex Ecology. The Part-Whole Relation in Ecosystems. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, p. 705.
156. Popper, K.R., 1982. The Open Universe: An Argument for Indeterminism. Rowman and Littlefield, Tatowa, N.J, 185 pp.
157. Popper, K.R., 1990. A World of Propensities. Thoemmes, Bristol, 51 pp.
158. Prigogine, I., 1947. L' Etude Thermodynamique des Processus Irreversibles. Desoer, Liege.
159. Prigogine, I., 1955. Introduction to Thermodynamics of Irreversible Processes. C.C. Thomas, Springfield, 115 pp.
160. Prigogine, I., 1962. Non Equilibrium Statistical Mechanics. Wiley Interscience, New York.
161. Prigogine, I., 1978. Time, structure and fluctuations. Science 201, 777-785.
162. Prigogine, I., 1980. From Being to Becoming: Time and Complexity in the Physical Sciences. Freeman, San Franscisco, California, U.S, 220 pp.
163. Prigogine, I., 1997. The End of Certainty-Time's Flow and the Laws of Nature. The Free Press, New York.
164. Prigogine, I., Stengers, I., 1979. La Nouvelle Alliance. Gallimard, Paris.
165. Prigogine, I., Stengers, I., 1984. Order Out of Chaos: Man's New Dialogue with Nature. Bantam Books, New York.
166. Prigogine, I., Stengers, I., 1988. Entre le Temps et l'Eternité. Fayard, Paris.
167. Pykh, Y.A., 2002. Lyapunov functions as a measure of biodiversity: theoretical background. Ecol. Indicat. 2, 123-133.
168. Radtke, E., Stra?skraba, M., 1980. Self-optimization in a phytoplankton model. Ecol. Model. 9, 247-268.
169. Russell, B., 1960. An Outline of Philosophy.
170. Rutledge, R.W., Basorre, B.L., Mulholland, R.J., 1976. Ecological stability: an information theory viewpoint. J. Theor. Biol. 57, 355-371.
171. Salthe, S.N., 1993. Development and Evolution: Complexity and Change in Biology. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
172. Schmidt-Nielsen, K., 1984. Scaling: Why is Animal Size So Important? Cambridge University Press, Cambridge-New York.
173. Schneider, E.D., Kay, J.J., 1994. Life as a manifestation of the second law of thermodynamics. Math. Comput. Model. 19, 25-48.
174. Schneider, E.D., Sagan, D., 2005. Into the Cool: Energy Flow Thermodynamics and Life. Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago, 362 pp.
175. Schrödinger, E., 1944. What is Life? The Physical Aspect of the Living Cell. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 90 pp.
176. Sciubba, E., 2011. What did Lotka really say? A critical reassessment of the "maximum power principle". Ecol. Model. 222, 1347-1353.
177. Shannon, C.E., 1948. A mathematical theory of communication. Bell Syst. Tech. J. 27, 379-423, pp. 623-656.
178. Solé, R.V., Miramontes, O., Goodwin, B.C., 1993. Oscillations and chaos in ant societies. J. Theor. Biol. 161 (3), 343-357.
179. Spencer, H., 1864. Principles of Biology. Williams and Norgate.
180. Southwood, T.R.E., 1976. Bionomics strategies and population parameters. In: May, R.M. (Ed.), Theoretical Ecology. Principles and Applications. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, pp. 26-49.
181. Straskraba, M., Jorgensen, S.E., Patten, B.C., 1999. Ecosystems emerging: 2. Dissipation. Ecol. Model. 117 (1), 3-39.
182. Svirezhev, Yu.M., 1998. Thermodynamic orientors: how to use thermodynamic concepts in ecology? In: Müller, F., Leupelt, M. (Eds.), Eco Targets, Goal Functions and Orientors. Springer Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg, p. 618.
183. Szargut, J., Morris, D.R., Steward, R.R., 1988. Exergy Analysis of Thermal, Chemical and Metallurgical Processes. Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, New York, 312 pp.
184. Tansley, A.G., 1935. The use and abuse of vegetational concepts and terms. Ecology 16, 284-307.
185. Thompson, D.W., 1942. On Growth and Form. Complete Revised Edition (1992). Dover Publications, NY, 1116 pp.
186. Ulanowicz, R.E., Hannon, B.M., 1987. Life and the production of entropy. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 232, 181-192.
187. Ulanowicz, R.E., 1986. Growth and Development: Ecosystems Phenomenology. Springer Verlag.
188. Ulanowicz, R.E., 1997. Ecology, The Ascendent Perspective. Columbia University Press, New York.
189. Ulanowicz, R.E., 2006. Process ecology: a transactional worldview. J. Ecodyn. 1, 103-114.
190. Ulanowicz, R.E., 2009. A Third Window. Natural Life Beyond Newton and Darwin. Templeton Foundation Press, West Conshohocken, Pensylvnia, 196 pp.
191. Vollenweider, R.A., 1975. Input-output models with special references to the phosphorus loading concept in limnology. Schweiz. Z. Hydrol. 37, 53-84.
192. Warming, E., 1909. Oecology of Plants; An Introduction to the Study of Plant-Communities. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 422 pp.
193. Watson, J.D., Crick, F.H., 1953. Molecular structure of nucleic acids; a structure for deoxyribose nucleic acid. Nature 171 (4356), 737-738.
194. Wilhelm, T., Brüggemann, R., 2000. Goal functions for the development of natural systems. Ecol. Model. 132, 231-246.
195. Worster, D., 1977. Nature's Economy: The Roots of Ecology. Cambridge University Press, San Francisco.
196. Wulff, F., Field, J.G., Mann, K.H. (Eds.), 1989. Network Analysis in Marine Ecology: Methods and Applications. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, p. 284.
197. Zotin, A.I., Zotina, R.S., 1967. Thermodynamic aspects of developmental biology. J. Theor. Biol. 17, 57-75.