Rare Earths: Future Elements of Conflict in Asia?

Asian Studies Review

Volumn 37, Issue 2, 2013, Pages 234-252

  Ting, Ming Hwa ^a   Seaman, John ^b  

^a Employment Science and Technology   (Australia)

^b Institut Français des Relations Internationales   (France)

Author keywords

geopolitics; natural resources; Northeast Asia; rare earths; resource security

Indexed keywords

EID: 84878980803     PISSN: 10357823     EISSN: 14678403     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10357823.2013.767313     Document Type: Article

References (80)

1. Barnes, Abi (2011) New war on e-waste. China Dialogue, 10 August.
2. BBC (2011) Japanese and Korean firms look to Brazil for rare metal, 3 March.
3. Bradsher, Keith (2011a) Supplies squeezed, rare earth prices soar. New York Times, 3 May.
4. Bradsher, Keith (2011b) Taking a risk for rare earths. New York Times, 8 March.
5. Buckley, Chris (2011) China vows to crack down on rare earth smuggling. Reuters, 19 May.
6. Business Wire (2011) GTSO ships Mongolian rare earth core samples to South Korea. Business Wire, 12 September.
7. Chambers, Matt (2011) China, biggest produce [sic] of rare earths, expects to import more. The Australian, 5 February.
8. Chen, Zhanheng (2010) Outline on the development and policies of China rare earth industry. The Chinese Society of Rare Earths (CSRE). Available at http://www.cs-re.org.cn/en/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=35, accessed 12 May 2011.
9. China Daily (2009) Exports control on rare earths aims at growth. China Daily, 2 September.
10. China Daily (2010) Ministry begins accepting applications for rare earth export quotas, 12 November.
11. China steps up regulation of rare earth industry. Available at http://english.gov.cn/2011-09/27/content_1957496.htm, accessed 27 September 2011.
12. Cho, Mee-young (2010) Update 1-S. Korea to lift 2011 energy, resource development. Reuters, 15 December.
13. Fickling, David (2010) Lynas, Solitz to market, distribute up to 90,000 tonnes of rare earths. The Australian, 24 November.
14. Gov.cn (2011a) China issues guideline to promote healthy development of rare earth industry. Gov.cn. Available at http://english.gov.cn/2011-05/19/content_1867140.htm, accessed 19 May 2011.
15. Gov.cn (2011b) China launches campaign to regulate rare earth production. Available at http://english.gov.cn/2011-08/09/content_1922201.htm, accessed 9 August 2011.
16. Gov.cn (2011c) China steps up regulation of rare earth industry. Available at http://english.gov.cn/2011-09/27/content_1957496.htm, accessed 27 September 2011.
17. Han, Jane (2010) Rare metal research center opens. Korea Times, 28 January.
18. Hatch, Gareth (2010) More detail on the 2011 Chinese rare earth production quota. Technology Metals Research. Available at http://www.techmetalsresearch.com/2011/04/more-detail-on-the-2011-chinese-rare-earth-production-quotas, accessed 17 April 2011.
19. Hatch, Gareth (2011a) USGS publishes 2011 estimate of global rare-earth reserves. Technology Metals Research. Available at http://www.techmetalsresearch.com/2011/02/usgs-publishes-2011-estimate-of-global-rare-earth-reserves/, accessed 20 May 2011.
20. Hatch, Gareth (2011b) The first round of Chinese export quota allocations for 2012. Technology Metals Research, 28 December. Available at http://www.techmetalsresearch.com/2011/12/the-first-round-of-chinese-rare-earth-export-quota-allocations-for-2012/, accessed 10 April 2012.
21. Hendrick, James B. 2010. " Rare earths ". In Summaries 2009, Edited by: Commodities, Mineral. Reston: United States Geological Survey.
22. Hitachi Ltd. (2010) Hitachi develops recycling technologies for rare earth metals. Hitachi, Ltd. Available at http://www.hitachi.com/New/cnews/101206.html, accessed 6 December 2010.
23. Hook, Leslie (2011) Beijing crackdown hits rare earth mining. Financial Times, 23 August.
24. Hsiao, Russell (2010) Strategic implications of China's consolidation of rare earth industries. China Brief 20.
25. Hurst, Cindy (2010) China's rare earth elements industry: What can the West learn? Institute for the Analysis of Global Security.
26. Inoue, Yuko and Julie Gordon (2011) Japanese rare earth consumers set up shop in China. Reuters, 12 August.
27. Kato, Yasuhiro, Fujinaga, Koichiro, Nakamura, Kentaro, Takaya, Yutaro, Kitamura, Kenichi, Ohta, Junichiro, Toda, Ryuichi, Nakashima, Takuya and Iwamori, Hikaru. 2011. Deep-sea mud in the Pacific Ocean as a potential resource for rare-earth elements. Nature Geoscience, 4 (8): 535 - 539.
28. Kim, Hyun-choel (2009) Korea moves to secure rare metals. Korea Times, 27 November.
29. Kim, Young-gyo (2010) S. Korea urged to diversify source of rare earth metals. Yonhap News, 30 December.
30. Kingsnorth, Dudley (2010) Meeting the challenges of rare earth supply in the next decade (The Hague: Center for Strategic Studies).
31. Korinek, Jane and Kim, Jeonghoi. 2010. " Export restrictions on strategic raw materials and their impact on trade and global supply ". In The economic impact of export restrictions, Paris: OECD.
32. Kubota, Yoko (2010) Vietnam and Japan to mine rare earths together. Reuters, 31 October.
33. Levkowitz, Lee and Nathan Beauchamp (2010) China's rare earths industry and its role in the international market, in US-China Economic Security Review Commission Staff Backgrounder (US-China Economic and Security Review Commission).
34. Lǐ Yī Péng, Rèn Mī Nuó and Shí Chàng (2010) Zhōng guó xī tǔ yuán hé mài le; liǎo;liào "bái cài jià". Rén mín rì bào hǎi wài bǎn.
35. Lian, Ruby and David Stanway (2011) China's Baotou rare-earth suspend facilities for one month. Reuters, 17 October.
36. Lim, Bomi (2010) South Korea to cut China rare-earth dependency as imports drop. Reuters, 22 October.
37. Lóng Huí Rén (2010) Quán guó rén dà dài biǎo liú jī fú: jiā qiáng duì xī tǔ zī yuán de bǎo hù. Available at http://www.mlr.gov.cn/kczygl/kcbh/201103/t20110310_822950.htm, accessed 22 May 2011.
38. Ministry of Commerce, China (2011) China caps rare metals output, raises mandatory output. Available at http://english.mofcom.gov.cn/aarticle/newsrelease/counselorsoffice/westernasiaandafricareport/201104/20110407527218.html, accessed 20 May 2011
39. Ministry of Economics, Trade and Industry, Japan (n.d.) (Japanese source) (Tokyo: METI).
40. Ministry of Knowledge Economy, Korea (2010) Korea, Japan take joint action to secure rare earths. Available at http://www.mke.go.kr/language/eng/news/news_view.jsp?seq=972&srchType=1&srchWord=&tableNm=E_01_01&pageNo=1, accessed 15 March 2011.
41. Ministry of Science and Technology, Japan. S&T program. Available at http://www.most.gov.cn/eng/programmes1/index.htm, accessed 15 March 2011.
42. Monahan, Andrew (2011) India and Japan look to expand rare earth alliance. Wall Street Journal, 16 February.
43. Mozur, Paul, and Fanny Liu (2011) Taiwan, China discuss possible rare-earths deal. Wall Street Journal, 19 May.
44. Mulgan, Aurelia George (2011) No longer a "reactive state": Japan's pro-free trade posture, in Asie Visions (IFRI).
45. Nagoya International Center (2010) Recycling for rare metals. Available at http://www.nic-nagoya.or.jp/en/e/2010/09/09/recycling-for-rare-metals-2/, accessed 10 December 2010.
46. Ohnsman, Alan (2011) Toyota readying motors that don't use rare earths. Bloomberg, 14 January.
47. People's Daily (2009) China's Inner Mongolia regulates rare earth export to attract investment: Official. People's Daily, 2 September.
48. People's Daily (2010) China: Restrictions measures target rare earth protection. People's Daily, 28 October.
49. People's Daily (2011) Double standards of Western companies. People's Daily, 11 January.
50. Rare Earth Exporters of Mongolia (n.d.) Rare Earth Exporters of Mongolia. Available at http://www.rareearthexporters.com, accessed 15 May 2011.
51. Rathi, Akshat (2011) Smuggling key factor in China's rare earth actions. Chemistry World, 29 October.
52. Seaman, John (2011a) Interview with Japanese industry representatives, Tokyo.
53. Seaman, John (2011b) Interview with Toru H. Okabe, Okabe Laboratory, University of Tokyo, Tokyo.
54. Seaman, John (2011c) Interviews with anonymous industry representatives, Tokyo.
55. Seaman, John (2011d) Interviews with industry and policy experts, Beijing.
56. Seaman, John (2011e) Interviews with Japanese Government officials.
57. SIJI Press English News Service (1982) Japan will go all out in exploring seabed mineral resources on its own without joining a four-nation Western agreement on the development of manganese nodules in the Pacific. SIJI Press English News Service, 18 February.
58. Sojitz Corporation (2010) Agreement to form strategic alliance with Lynas, an Australian rare earths company, concerning rare earths supply for the Japanese market and supporting the expansion of Lynas Rare Earths Project. Available at http://www.theaustralian.com.au/business/mining-energy/lynas-sojitz-to-market-distribute-up-to-90000-tonnes-rare-earths/story-e6frg9df-1225960333556, accessed 30 December 2010.
59. Tabuchi, Hiroko (2010) Japan recycles minerals from used electronics. New York Times, 4 October.
60. Ting, Ming Hwa (2010a) China and the supply chain of rare metals: Table of [dis]contents. East Asia Forum Available at http://www.eastasiaforum.org/2010/11/11/china-and-the-supply-chain-of-rare-metals-table-of-discontents/, accessed 14 May 2011.
61. Ting, Ming Hwa. 2010. New spice wars: China, Japan, the US compete for rare metal. Global Asia, 5 (2): 58 - 59.
62. Ting, Ming Hwa (2011) Rare metals after the Japanese nuclear crisis. Available at http://www.eastasiaforum.org/2011/05/14/rare-metals-after-the-japanese-nuclear-crisis/, accessed 14 May 2011.
63. Tse, Pui-Kwan. 2011. China's rare-earth industry, Reston, Virginia: US Geological Survey.
64. US Department of Energy (2010) Critical materials strategy (Washington: US Department of Energy).
65. United States Geological Survey. 1996. Rare earths, Reston: USGS.
66. United States Geological Survey (2004) Rare earths (Reston: USGS).
67. United States Geological Survey (2011) Rare earths (Reston: USGS).
68. Wang, Yaguang (2011) China tightens regulation of rare earth industry. Xinhua, 15 June.
69. Wū rǎn fáng zhì sī (2011) Guān yú yìn fā xī tǔ qǐ yè huán jìng bǎo hù hé chá gōng zuò zhǐ nán de tōng zhī.
70. Xī tǔ gōng yè wū rǎn wù pái fàng biāo zhǔn (GB26451 fàng biāo), Available at http://kjs.mep.gov.cn/pv_obj_cache/pv_obj_id_41D98CE00CFE396700315824DA96D4F024250600/filename/W020110210366768105784.pdf, accessed November 2011.
71. Yang, Ai (2010) Japan pressed to confer before scouring seabed. China Daily, 27 April.
72. Yomiuri Shimbun (2012) Govt right to pressure China to respect WTO rules Yomiuri Shimbun, 15 March.
73. Yonhap News (2010) Seoul to boost stockpile of rare metals by 2016. Yonhap News, 15 October.
74. Zhang, Qi (2011) New standards for rare earth sector. China Daily, 7 January.
75. Zhang, Qi and Qingfen Ding (2010a) Export tax to be raised on rare earth. China Daily, 15 December.
76. Zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó zhōng yāng rén mín zhèng fǔ (2011) Guó wù yuàn guān yú cù jìn xī tǔ háng yè chí xù jiàn kāng fā zhǎn de ruò gān yì jiàn guó fā{left tortoise shell bracket}2011{right tortoise shell bracket}No. 12. Available at
77. Zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó shāng wù bù (2005) shāng wù bù gōng gào2005nián dì 119 hào 2006 nián xī tǔ chū kǒu qǐ yè míng dān. Zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó shāng wù bù. Available at http://www.mofcom.gov.cn/aarticle/b/e/200601/20060101280116.html, accessed 15 December 2010.
78. Zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó shāng wù bù (2009) Shāng wù bù gōng gào2009nián dì129hào fā bù 2010 nián xī tǔ chū kǒu qǐ yè míng dān. Zhōng huá rén mín gòng hé guó shāng wù bù.
79. Zhōng guó rén mín gòng hé guó guó tǔ zī yuán bù (2010a) Nán fāng wǔ shěng; xǐng(qū) shí wǔ shì xī tǔ kāi fā jiān guǎn gōng zuò zuò tán huì tí chū xī tǔ jiān; jiàn guǎn qū yù lián dòng jī zhì yào; yāo xiàng zòng shēn tuī jìn. Available at http://www.mlr.gov.cn/xwdt/jrxw/201011/t20101108_793032.htm, accessed 1 February 2011.
80. Zhōng guó rén mín gòng hé guó guó tǔ zī yuán bù (2010b) Píng lùn: Zhōng guó xī tǔ háng yè "rǎng wài bì xiān ān nèi". Available at http://www.mlr.gov.cn/xwdt/mtsy/qtmt/201011/t20101108_792890.htm, accessed 1 February 2011.