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An analogous initiative is the interpretation of 'the outsourcing of tea production in South India...as a strategic response to enhanced demands for ethical accountability along the global value chain'.
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17
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0004276654
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As ActionAid notes, 'while AGRA does work with public institutions involved in agricultural development, it does not advocate that the African state resuscitate critical agricultural agents such as parastatals', which were dismantled under structural adjustment mandates in the 1990s.
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25
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See http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/ECAEXT/TAJIKISTANEXTN/0,contentMDK:21790044~menuPK:3939976~pagePK:64027988~piPK:64027986~theSitePK:258744,00.html.
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26
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Note
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While 90% of seeds in Africa are local varieties, seed privatisation is very much on the drawing board, since the development paradigm defines productivity as yield per plant, and therefore concentrates on seed technologies that individualise cropping, at the expense of systems of crop diversity.
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27
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AGRA and the Millennium Challenge Corporation launch a historic collaboration to provide Africa's farmers with technologies, infrastructure and financing
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See also Soederberg's and Rankin's articles in this issue.
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Similarly Dolan reports a decline from 75% to 10%-20% of exports during the 1990s among fruit and vegetable smallholder growers for large Kenyan agro-exporters.
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Oya argues that this dynamic intensifies processes of social differentiation already under way.
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Oya reports that 'growing market risks (in the form of price volatility), and the shift from spot markets to implicit contracts, have made full vertical integration and preferred supplier lists central to contemporary global agribusiness and to global supermarkets, which have risen as important players in many developing countries, including Africa'.
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Lack of formalised contractual arrangements is widespread-for example, in Africa the contract 'is a verbal agreement or a simple registration by farmers to indicate understanding and compliance with the terms of agreement... [In one Ghana study] Farmers did not know how the prices had been determined. Equally unknown to them were when collection and payment would be after harvesting, the penalties for defaulting, or the compensation arrangements for contingency or crop losses'.
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In 2004 La Vía Campesina noted that agri-power no longer resided in control over land, rather it resides in the relations that surround agricultural production: 'those that control loans, materials supply, the dissemination of new technologies, such as transgenic products, on the one hand, and those that control national and international product warehousing systems, transportation, distribution and retail sales to the consumer, on the other hand, have real power'.
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Thus a survey of farmers in Kenya showed that 'Farmers outside of GlobalGAP receive a much lower level of advice and support from the buyer, are paid a lower price per kilo, grow and sell smaller volumes and derive much less of their household income from sales of export crops'.
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