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Volumn 28, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 69-97

Bengal's Southern Frontier, 1757 to 1948

Author keywords

boundary disputes; Dampier Hodges Line; deforestation; discontent; exploitation; forest dweller; migration; reclamation; settlement; sharecropping; stratification; struggle; tebhaga; Tiger; Tilman Henckell; under tenures

Indexed keywords


EID: 84877715035     PISSN: 02576430     EISSN: 0973080X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0257643013477252     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (9)

References (110)
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    • Sundarbaner Jalkar Ekti Samikhya
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    • Arkaprabha Sengupta, ‘Sundarbaner Jalkar Ekti Samikhya’, ed. Mahasweta Devi, Bartika, July–Sept. (1989): 43–44.
    • (1989) Bartika , pp. 43-44
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    • Sundarbane Bhanga Garar Khela
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    • Tushar Kanjilal, ‘Sundarbane Bhanga Garar Khela’, ed. Sagarmoy Ghosh., Desh (18th May 1996): 106–07.
    • (1996) Desh , pp. 106-107
    • Kanjilal, T.1
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    • (district of 24 Parganas and Sundarbans) (Delhi: D.K. Publishing House)
    • W.W. Hunter, A Statistical Account of Bengal, vol. I (district of 24 Parganas and Sundarbans) (Delhi: D.K. Publishing House, 1973), 382–83;
    • (1973) A Statistical Account of Bengal , vol.1 , pp. 382-383
    • Hunter, W.W.1
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    • Long Term Transformations in the Sundarbans Wetlands Forests of Bengal
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    • John F. Richards and Elizabeth P. Flint, ‘Long Term Transformations in the Sundarbans Wetlands Forests of Bengal’, Agriculture and Human Values VII, no. 2 Spring (1990): 17–18.
    • (1990) Agriculture and Human Values , vol.7 , Issue.2 , pp. 17-18
    • Richards, J.F.1    Flint, E.P.2
  • 11
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    • Itihas-O-Sanskriti
    • ed. Tarapada Pal (Calcutta: K.S. Printing Works)
    • Tarapada Maiti, ‘Itihas-O-Sanskriti’, in Chabbis Pargana, ed. Tarapada Pal (Calcutta: K.S. Printing Works, 1972), 39–40;
    • (1972) Chabbis Pargana , pp. 39-40
    • Maiti, T.1
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    • Suchona-OMukti Sangram
    • ed. Tarapada Pal (Calcutta: K.S. Printing Works)
    • Ashutosh Bandyopadhyay, ‘Suchona-OMukti Sangram’, in Chabbis Pargana, ed. Tarapada Pal (Calcutta: K.S. Printing Works, 1972), 21–22;
    • (1972) Chabbis Pargana , pp. 21-22
    • Bandyopadhyay, A.1
  • 13
    • 84877699379 scopus 로고
    • (Calcutta), The article of the Treaty made on 3 June 1757, reads, ‘All land lying to the South of Calcutta, as far as Kulpi, shall be under the Zamindary of the English Company, and the officers of those parts shall be under their jurisdiction.’ The treaty of 1757 acquired for the East India Company the Zamindary of Calcutta and also of 24 Parganas. The zamindari contained about 882 square miles chiefly south of Fort William on the eastern side of river Hooghly and included Chakla Hooghly. On 20 December 1757, a parwana or order from the Nazim Mir Jafar directed formation of the new zamindari in favour of the Company and commanded obedience to the latter's authority as landholder
    • Radhakumud Mookerji, Indian Land System (Calcutta, 1958), 37–39. The article of the Treaty made on 3 June 1757, reads, ‘All land lying to the South of Calcutta, as far as Kulpi, shall be under the Zamindary of the English Company, and the officers of those parts shall be under their jurisdiction.’ The treaty of 1757 acquired for the East India Company the Zamindary of Calcutta and also of 24 Parganas. The zamindari contained about 882 square miles chiefly south of Fort William on the eastern side of river Hooghly and included Chakla Hooghly. On 20 December 1757, a parwana or order from the Nazim Mir Jafar directed formation of the new zamindari in favour of the Company and commanded obedience to the latter's authority as landholder.
    • (1958) Indian Land System , pp. 37-39
    • Mookerji, R.1
  • 16
    • 84877714918 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (New Delhi: Orient BlackSwan, Social Science Press)
    • Sutapa Chatterjee Sarkar, The Sundarbans (New Delhi: Orient BlackSwan, Social Science Press, 2010), 56–58.
    • (2010) The Sundarbans , pp. 56-58
    • Sarkar, S.C.1
  • 17
    • 80053497319 scopus 로고
    • Historical and Geographical Background
    • ed. Amal Kumar Das, Sankarananda Mukherji and Manas Kamal Chowdhuri (Editions Indian: Calcutta), Calcutta Gazette, 24 April 1788
    • Sankarananda Mukherji, ‘Historical and Geographical Background’, in A Focus on Sundarban, ed. Amal Kumar Das, Sankarananda Mukherji and Manas Kamal Chowdhuri (Editions Indian: Calcutta, 1981), 9; Calcutta Gazette, 24 April 1788
    • (1981) A Focus on Sundarban , pp. 9
    • Mukherji, S.1
  • 25
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    • The Soonderbuns
    • J.H. Reilly, ‘The Soonderbuns’, The Calcutta Review, vol. XXXI (1858), 387.
    • (1858) The Calcutta Review , vol.31 , pp. 387
    • Reilly, J.H.1
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    • 84877714980 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Soonderbuns
    • Reilly, ‘The Soonderbuns’, 387.
    • Reilly1
  • 32
    • 84877694164 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Henckell's jurisdiction extended in the South–to the Bay of Bengal; in the East—to the Haringhata river; in the West—to Raimangal; in the North—to the village of Dulyapur, 2
    • Pargiter, A Revenue History of Sundarbans, 2. Henckell's jurisdiction extended in the South–to the Bay of Bengal; in the East—to the Haringhata river; in the West—to Raimangal; in the North—to the village of Dulyapur, 2.
    • A Revenue History of Sundarbans , pp. 2
    • Pargiter1
  • 44
    • 84877717385 scopus 로고
    • Importance of the Sundarbans Region in West Bengal's Economy
    • (Proceedings of the Interdiciplinary Symposium), eds Kanan Gopal Bagchi, Sunil Kumar Munsi and Rabindranath Bhattacharyya (Calcutta: Sri Sibendranath Kanjilal)
    • Rabindra Kumar Sengupta, ‘Importance of the Sundarbans Region in West Bengal's Economy’, in The Bhagirathi-Hooghly Basin (Proceedings of the Interdiciplinary Symposium), eds Kanan Gopal Bagchi, Sunil Kumar Munsi and Rabindranath Bhattacharyya (Calcutta: Sri Sibendranath Kanjilal, 1972), 310;
    • (1972) The Bhagirathi-Hooghly Basin , pp. 310
    • Sengupta, R.K.1
  • 49
    • 0007320755 scopus 로고
    • (Ranchi: Bar Library), According to S.C. Roy, ‘We may add that the obstacles now thrown by the landlords in the way of their increasing the area of their holdings with the increase of their family, lead many an Oraon family to emigrate to Assam, the Duars or the Sundarban etc.’ And on the oppression of the money lenders Roy again writes, ‘Once an Oraon gets into the clutches of this Indian Shylock it becomes extremely difficult to extricate himself from his grip. The paltry initial debt goes on selling enormously by a process–which the simple Oraons can never understand’
    • S.C. Roy, The Oraons of Chota Nagpur (Ranchi: Bar Library, 1915), 206. According to S.C. Roy, ‘We may add that the obstacles now thrown by the landlords in the way of their increasing the area of their holdings with the increase of their family, lead many an Oraon family to emigrate to Assam, the Duars or the Sundarban etc.’ And on the oppression of the money lenders Roy again writes, ‘Once an Oraon gets into the clutches of this Indian Shylock it becomes extremely difficult to extricate himself from his grip. The paltry initial debt goes on selling enormously by a process–which the simple Oraons can never understand’.
    • (1915) The Oraons of Chota Nagpur , pp. 206
    • Roy, S.C.1
  • 51
    • 84877693953 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Long Term Transformations
    • Richards and Flint, ‘Long Term Transformations’, 18.
    • Richards1    Flint2
  • 52
    • 84877707797 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • WBSA, Presidency Commissioner Sundarban Records (PCSR), (Copy Book of letter issued) CBLI, 18 March 1836, Letter written to J.C. Erskine by Commissioner of Sundarbans; WBSA, PCSR, CBLI, 8 April 1836, 13 June 1836, 20 August 1838, Letters to the Commissioner of Sundarbans by Dampier, Jessore; WBSA, PCSR, CBLI, 20 August 1838: in this letter Dampier writes, ‘… I must say that I consider many proceedings to have been extremely injudicious but that the several of this form appears to me to be most erroneous and likely to produce serious loss to the Government.… There are lands of which the farmer has not acquired possession but cultivates them and does not pay any rent to the government.’, 6–7
    • Pargiter, A Revenue History of Sundarbans, 4, 12; WBSA, Presidency Commissioner Sundarban Records (PCSR), (Copy Book of letter issued) CBLI, 18 March 1836, Letter written to J.C. Erskine by Commissioner of Sundarbans; WBSA, PCSR, CBLI, 8 April 1836, 13 June 1836, 20 August 1838, Letters to the Commissioner of Sundarbans by Dampier, Jessore; WBSA, PCSR, CBLI, 20 August 1838: in this letter Dampier writes, ‘… I must say that I consider many proceedings to have been extremely injudicious but that the several of this form appears to me to be most erroneous and likely to produce serious loss to the Government.… There are lands of which the farmer has not acquired possession but cultivates them and does not pay any rent to the government.’, 6–7
    • A Revenue History of Sundarbans , vol.4 , pp. 12
    • Pargiter1
  • 56
    • 84877694164 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • WBSA, BOR, 17 October 1817, Letter from Governor General to President Members of Board of Revenue; WBSA, BOR, 11 November 1817, Letter from President, Members of Board of Revenue to Sundarban Commissioner;
    • WBSA, BOR, 17 October 1817, Letter from Governor General to President Members of Board of Revenue; WBSA, BOR, 11 November 1817, Letter from President, Members of Board of Revenue to Sundarban Commissioner; Pargiter A Revenue History of Sundarbans, 12.
    • A Revenue History of Sundarbans , pp. 12
    • Pargiter1
  • 59
    • 84877693953 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Long Term Transformations
    • Richards and Flint, ‘Long Term Transformations’, 20.
    • Richards1    Flint2
  • 60
    • 84877694164 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • He writes, ‘In the bestowal of the grants, however, the European residents of Calcutta largely predominated, and few, if any, were given to the border Zamindars.’
    • Pargiter, A Revenue History of Sundarbans, 23. He writes, ‘In the bestowal of the grants, however, the European residents of Calcutta largely predominated, and few, if any, were given to the border Zamindars.’
    • A Revenue History of Sundarbans , pp. 23
    • Pargiter1
  • 63
    • 84997890163 scopus 로고
    • (Alipore, Calcutta: Bengal Government Press), The salient features of the 1853 rules were: 1. grants were made for ninety nine years, and were sold to highest bidders; 2. the revenue assessed on them was reduced to about six annas per acre and did not become fully payable till the 51st years after a long and gradual enhancement commencing from the 21st year; 3. reclamation was more carefully provided for, the grantee being required to have of his grant fit for cultivation in five years, 1/4 in ten, 1/2 in twenty and the whole in thirty years under pain of forfeiture. The earlier grantees had the option to give up their old leases and take fresh leases under the new rules. To protect the interest of the salt agencies new clauses were prescribed by the government
    • Anil Ch. Lahiri, Final Report on the Survey and Settlement Operations in the District of 24 Pargana 1924–33 (Alipore, Calcutta: Bengal Government Press, 1936), 112–13. The salient features of the 1853 rules were: 1. grants were made for ninety nine years, and were sold to highest bidders; 2. the revenue assessed on them was reduced to about six annas per acre and did not become fully payable till the 51st years after a long and gradual enhancement commencing from the 21st year; 3. reclamation was more carefully provided for, the grantee being required to have of his grant fit for cultivation in five years, 1/4 in ten, 1/2 in twenty and the whole in thirty years under pain of forfeiture. The earlier grantees had the option to give up their old leases and take fresh leases under the new rules. To protect the interest of the salt agencies new clauses were prescribed by the government.
    • (1936) Final Report on the Survey and Settlement Operations in the District of 24 Pargana 1924–33 , pp. 112-113
    • Lahiri, A.C.1
  • 65
    • 84877711399 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Historical and Geographical Background
    • 12–13
    • Sankarananda Mukherji, ‘Historical and Geographical Background’, 12, 12–13.
    • Mukherji, S.1
  • 67
    • 84877693953 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Long Term Transformations
    • Richards and Flint, ‘Long Term Transformations’.
    • Richards1    Flint2
  • 68
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    • WBSA, Revenue Department, Land Revernue Branch (RD, LR) Branch, Minute of 12 September 1874, from Secretary to the Bengal Government to Secretary to the Government of India
    • Ascoli, A Revenue History of the Sundarban, 55–57; WBSA, Revenue Department, Land Revernue Branch (RD, LR) Branch, Minute of 12 September 1874, from Secretary to the Bengal Government to Secretary to the Government of India.
    • A Revenue History of the Sundarban , pp. 55-57
    • Ascoli1
  • 70
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    • The rules of 1853 had been discarded, and the new rules were based on the draft rules of the committee of 1871: they were the origin of the Large Capitalist Rules of
    • Ascoli, A Revenue History of the Sundarban, 15. The rules of 1853 had been discarded, and the new rules were based on the draft rules of the committee of 1871: they were the origin of the Large Capitalist Rules of 1879.
    • (1879) A Revenue History of the Sundarban , pp. 15
    • Ascoli1
  • 72
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    • Kakdwip 1946–50
    • ed. Mahasweta Devi
    • Maitreya Ghatak, ‘Kakdwip 1946–50’, in Bartika, ed. Mahasweta Devi (1986): 10;
    • (1986) Bartika , pp. 10
    • Ghatak, M.1
  • 73
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    • A comparative statement below shows the differences in the salient features of the leases under the Rules of 1853 and
    • A.C. Lahiri Final Report on the Survey and Settlement, 114–15. A comparative statement below shows the differences in the salient features of the leases under the Rules of 1853 and 1879.
    • (1879) Final Report on the Survey and Settlement , pp. 114-115
    • Lahiri, A.C.1
  • 75
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    • The 1904 value is from the Government of India
    • 26 Volumes (Oxford), See Sundarbans, vol. 23, 140
    • The 1904 value is from the Government of India, Imperial Gazetteer of India, 26 Volumes (Oxford, 1908); See Sundarbans, vol. 23, 140.
    • (1908) Imperial Gazetteer of India
  • 82
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    • Long Term Transformations
    • Richard and Flint, ‘Long Term Transformations’, 22.
    • Richard1    Flint2
  • 83
    • 84877707191 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (Districts of Nadiya and Jessore), When this account was written, the modern district of Khulna was a part of Jessore. The town of Morrelganj bears the same name today
    • W.W. Hunter, Statistical Account of Bengal, vol. II (Districts of Nadiya and Jessore), 232–39. When this account was written, the modern district of Khulna was a part of Jessore. The town of Morrelganj bears the same name today.
    • Statistical Account of Bengal , vol.2 , pp. 232-239
    • Hunter, W.W.1
  • 85
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    • (Calcutta: K P Bagchi and company)
    • Sirajul Islam, Bengal Land Tenure (Calcutta: K P Bagchi and company, 1988), 55–61;
    • (1988) Bengal Land Tenure , pp. 55-61
    • Islam, S.1
  • 87
    • 84877693953 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Long Term Transformations
    • Richard and Flint, ‘Long Term Transformations’, 21–22.
    • Richard1    Flint2
  • 88
    • 0003632163 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Jack attributes the convolutions of the Bakarganj land tenure system to the process of land reclamation. The haola tenures, in his view were designed for purposes of pioneering in the forests when tracts were split by rivers and streams and could not be readily managed. Many of the investors were upper caste men who were prevented by caste rules from cultivating. They found direct management difficult, hence the chain of undertenures. Jack also suggests that most of the landlords in the district came from Bikrampur town, near Dacca and followed the same practices, 46
    • Jack, Final Report, 48. Jack attributes the convolutions of the Bakarganj land tenure system to the process of land reclamation. The haola tenures, in his view were designed for purposes of pioneering in the forests when tracts were split by rivers and streams and could not be readily managed. Many of the investors were upper caste men who were prevented by caste rules from cultivating. They found direct management difficult, hence the chain of undertenures. Jack also suggests that most of the landlords in the district came from Bikrampur town, near Dacca and followed the same practices, 46.
    • Final Report , pp. 48
    • Jack1
  • 89
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    • Permanent Settlement in Operation: Bakarganj District, East Bengal
    • ed. R.E. Frykenberg (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press)
    • Tapan Raychaudhuri, ‘Permanent Settlement in Operation: Bakarganj District, East Bengal’, in Land Control and Social Structure in Indian History, ed. R.E. Frykenberg (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969), 163–74.
    • (1969) Land Control and Social Structure in Indian History , pp. 163-174
    • Raychaudhuri, T.1
  • 93
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    • A Survey of Rural Migration and Land Reclamation in India, 1885
    • April
    • Dietmar Rothermund, ‘A Survey of Rural Migration and Land Reclamation in India, 1885’, The Journal of Peasant Studies 4, no. 3, April (1977): 230–33.
    • (1977) The Journal of Peasant Studies , vol.4 , Issue.3 , pp. 230-233
    • Rothermund, D.1
  • 94
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    • A Survey of Rural Migration and Land Reclamation in India, 1885
    • Sirajul Islam, ‘A Survey of Rural Migration and Land Reclamation in India, 1885’, The Journal of Peasant Studies 4, no. 3, 114–15.
    • The Journal of Peasant Studies , vol.4 , Issue.3 , pp. 114-115
    • Islam, S.1
  • 95
    • 84877698390 scopus 로고
    • (London: Longmans, Green & Co. Ltd.)
    • Radhakamal Mukherjee, Land Problems of India (London: Longmans, Green & Co. Ltd., 1933), 99.
    • (1933) Land Problems of India , pp. 99
    • Mukherjee, R.1
  • 96
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    • (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press)
    • Sugata Bose, Agrarian Bengal (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 16.
    • (1986) Agrarian Bengal , pp. 16
    • Bose, S.1
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    • Kakdwip Tebhaga Movement
    • ed. A.R. Desai, (First Edition Bombay
    • Krishnakanta Sarkar, ‘Kakdwip Tebhaga Movement’, in Peasant Struggles in India, ed. A.R. Desai, (First Edition Bombay, 1979; Paperback Delhi, 1981), 469. (1981), p. 469;
    • (1979) Peasant Struggles in India , pp. 469
    • Sarkar, K.1
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    • The Anti-Imperialist People's Front
    • Central Archives, Communist Party of India, Dutt and Bradley, 29 February, and ‘To All-Imperialist Fighters: Gathering Storm’ (pamphlet by the C.P.I.), December 1936
    • Ajoy Bhavana, Central Archives, Communist Party of India, Dutt and Bradley, ‘The Anti-Imperialist People's Front’, Imprecor, 29 February 1936, and ‘To All-Imperialist Fighters: Gathering Storm’ (pamphlet by the C.P.I.), December 1936.
    • (1936) Imprecor
    • Bhavana, A.1
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    • People Age—A Weekly Organ of Communist Party of India, Bombay, 28 and 29 December 1946 (includes newsletter, documentations, circulars, statements, extracts from documents available at Centre for Studies in Social Sciences, Kolkata), (Calcutta: People's Publishing House)
    • People Age—A Weekly Organ of Communist Party of India, Bombay, 28 and 29 December 1946 (includes newsletter, documentations, circulars, statements, extracts from documents available at Centre for Studies in Social Sciences, Kolkata); Sunil Sen, Agrarian Struggle in Bengal 1946–47 (Calcutta: People's Publishing House, 1972), 36–37.
    • (1972) Agrarian Struggle in Bengal 1946–47 , pp. 36-37
    • Sen, S.1
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    • Beating with shoes was the most demeaning way of inflicting humiliation—a method very generously practised by the landed magnates on defaulting sharecroppers; while retaliating, the sharecroppers merely followed the landlords example. New Delhi, Central Archives, Communist Party of India, 24 Parganas District Committee, 7 November
    • Beating with shoes was the most demeaning way of inflicting humiliation—a method very generously practised by the landed magnates on defaulting sharecroppers; while retaliating, the sharecroppers merely followed the landlords example. New Delhi, Ajoy Bhavana, Central Archives, Communist Party of India, Banglar Shishu Telengana—Lalganj, 24 Parganas District Committee, 7 November 1949, p. 29.
    • (1949) Banglar Shishu Telengana—Lalganj , pp. 29
    • Bhavana, A.1
  • 106
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    • Kakdwip Tebhaga Movement
    • Krishnakanta Sarkar, ‘Kakdwip Tebhaga Movement’, 477.
    • Sarkar, K.1
  • 107
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    • Forest-Fire in the Sundarbans, The Communist and the Kakdwip Rising 1946–50
    • Occasional Papers on, Nehru Memorial Museum, New Delhi, November
    • Amit Gupta, ‘Forest-Fire in the Sundarbans, The Communist and the Kakdwip Rising 1946–50’, Occasional Papers on History and Society, Nehru Memorial Museum, New Delhi, November, 1985, pp. 33–34.
    • (1985) History and Society , pp. 33-34
    • Gupta, A.1
  • 108
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    • Peasant Mobilisation in Bengal
    • (summer)
    • Maitreya Ghatak, ‘Peasant Mobilisation in Bengal’, in Ecoscience, Cressida Transaction, 3, no 1, (summer, 1983), 111–18.
    • (1983) Ecoscience, Cressida Transaction , vol.3 , Issue.1 , pp. 111-118
    • Ghatak, M.1
  • 110
    • 84998176287 scopus 로고
    • When the firing took place the women became more daring!
    • In the later phase of tebhaga, the rural poor woman stormed heaven to defend the movement and its gains. One of the examples: A big contingent of policeman had just arrested some male peasant cadres and wanted to leave by truck. Suddenly, women of the village sounded the warning system. The air vibrated with the noise and echoes of conchshells, horns, gongs and other instruments. At this, a hundred women—Hindus, Muslims and tribals alike came out from their huts. With their brooms and knives they ran towards the truck and tried to free the arrested men. An unequal fight ensued, in which the policemen could ultimately outwit the women, only after they had fired their rifles. But at no moment did the women who were all from poor families lose courage, Mass encirclements of police personnel, in response to alarm signals given by women, were a regular feature of Tebhaga in its militant phase. This is cited by Peter Custers, Women in the Tebhaga Uprising (Calcutta: Naya Prakash), 111–12. This example was based on the tales told by inhabitants of a village in the 24 Parganas, and the quotation is from a Muslim woman who herself participated in this fight. Some sections are from
    • In the later phase of tebhaga, the rural poor woman stormed heaven to defend the movement and its gains. One of the examples: A big contingent of policeman had just arrested some male peasant cadres and wanted to leave by truck. Suddenly, women of the village sounded the warning system. The air vibrated with the noise and echoes of conchshells, horns, gongs and other instruments. At this, a hundred women—Hindus, Muslims and tribals alike came out from their huts. With their brooms and knives they ran towards the truck and tried to free the arrested men. An unequal fight ensued, in which the policemen could ultimately outwit the women, only after they had fired their rifles. But at no moment did the women who were all from poor families lose courage. ‘When the firing took place the women became more daring!’ Mass encirclements of police personnel, in response to alarm signals given by women, were a regular feature of Tebhaga in its militant phase. This is cited by Peter Custers, Women in the Tebhaga Uprising (Calcutta: Naya Prakash, 1987), 111–12. This example was based on the tales told by inhabitants of a village in the 24 Parganas, and the quotation is from a Muslim woman who herself participated in this fight. Some sections are from Sutapa Chatterjee Sarkar, The Sundarbans.
    • (1987) The Sundarbans
    • Sarkar, S.C.1


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