HIV transmission

Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine

Volumn 2, Issue 11, 2012, Pages

  Shaw, George M ^a   Hunter, Eric ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

^b EMORY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CHEMOKINE RECEPTOR CCR5; CHEMOKINE RECEPTOR CXCR4; VIRUS ENVELOPE PROTEIN;

ANTIBODY DETECTION; ARTICLE; CD4+ T LYMPHOCYTE; DISEASE TRANSMISSION; ENVELOPE GENE; ENZYME LINKED IMMUNOSORBENT ASSAY; GENE SEQUENCE; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS 1 INFECTION; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; INCIDENCE; INFECTION RISK; NONHUMAN; PREVALENCE; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; VIRUS CELL INTERACTION; VIRUS IDENTIFICATION; VIRUS INFECTIVITY; VIRUS LOAD; VIRUS NEUTRALIZATION; VIRUS REPLICATION; VIRUS STRAIN; VIRUS TRANSMISSION; WESTERN BLOTTING; ANIMAL; DISEASE MODEL; GENETICS; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS 1; IMMUNOLOGY; PHENOTYPE; REVIEW; THEORETICAL MODEL; VIROLOGY;

ANIMALIA; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS 1;

ANIMALS; DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL; ENV GENE PRODUCTS, HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS; HIV INFECTIONS; HIV-1; HUMANS; MODELS, THEORETICAL; PHENOTYPE; RECEPTORS, CCR5;

EID: 84876864047     PISSN: None     EISSN: 21571422     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a006965     Document Type: Article

References (144)

1. Abrahams MR, Anderson JA, Giorgi EE, Seoighe C, Mlisana K, Ping LH, AthreyaGS, Treurnicht FK, Keele BF, Wood N, et al. 2009. Quantitating the multiplicity of infection with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 subtype C reveals a non-poisson distribution of transmitted variants. J Virol 83: 3556-3567.
2. Alexander M, Lynch R, Mulenga J, Allen S, Derdeyn CA, Hunter E. 2010. Donor and recipient envs from heterosexual human immunodeficiency virus subtype C transmission pairs require high receptor levels for entry. J Virol 84: 4100-4104.
3. Arthos J, Cicala C, Martinelli E, Macleod K, Van Ryk D, Wei D, Xiao Z, VeenstraTD, Conrad TP, Lempicki RA, et al. 2008. HIV-1 envelope protein binds to and signals through integrin α4β7, the gut mucosal homing receptor for peripheral T cells. Nat Immunol 9: 301-309.
4. Asmal M, Hellmann I, Liu W, Keele BF, Perelson AS, Bhattacharya T, GnanakaranS, Daniels M, Haynes BF, Korber BT. 2011. A signature in HIV-1 envelope leader peptide associated with transition from acute to chronic infection impacts envelope processing and infectivity. PLoS One 6: e23673.
5. Auvert B, Taljaard D, Lagarde E, Sobngwi-Tambekou J, Sitta R, Puren A. 2005. Randomized, controlled intervention trial of male circumcision for reduction of HIV infection risk: The ANRS 1265 trial. PLoS Med 2: e298.
6. Bailey RC, Moses S, Parker CB, Agot K, Maclean I, Krieger JN, Williams CF, Campbell RT, Ndinya-Achola JO. 2007. Male circumcision for HIV prevention in young men in Kisumu, Kenya: A randomised controlled trial. Lancet 369: 643-656.
7. Bar KJ, Li H, Chamberland A, Tremblay C, Routy JP, Grayson T, Sun C, Wang S, Learn GH, Morgan CJ, et al. 2010. Wide variation in the multiplicity of HIV-1 infection among injection drug users. J Virol 84: 6241-6247.
8. Berger EA, Murphy PM, Farber JM. 1999. Chemokine receptors as HIV-1 coreceptors: Roles in viral entry, tropism, and disease. Annu Rev Immunol 17: 657-700.
9. Boggiano C, Littman DR. 2007. HIV's vagina travelogue. Immunity 26: 145-147.
10. Boggiano C, Manel N, Littman DR. 2007. Dendritic cell-mediated trans-enhancement of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infectivity is independent of DC-SIGN. J Virol 81: 2519-2523.
11. Boily MC, Baggaley RF, Wang L, Masse B, White RG, Hayes RJ, Alary M. 2009. Heterosexual risk of HIV-1 infection per sexual act: Systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Lancet Infect Dis 9: 118-129.
12. + T cell depletion during all stages of HIV disease occurs predominantly in the gastrointestinal tract. J Exp Med 200: 749-759.
13. Brenner BG, Roger M, Routy JP, Moisi D, Ntemgwa M, Matte C, Baril JG, ThomasR, Rouleau D, Bruneau J, et al. 2007. High rates of forward transmission events after acute/early HIV-1 infection. J Infect Dis 195: 951-959.
14. Buffa V, Stieh D, Mamhood N, Hu Q, Fletcher P, Shattock RJ. 2009. Cyanovirin-N potently inhibits human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection in cellular and cervical explant models. J Gen Virol 90: 234-243.
15. Chohan B, Lang D, Sagar M, Korber B, Lavreys L, Richardson B, Overbaugh J. 2005. Selection for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 envelope glycosylation variants with shorter V1-V2 loop sequences occurs during transmission of certain genetic subtypes and may impact viral RNA levels. J Virol 79: 6528-6531.
16. Church JD, Huang W, Mwatha A, Musoke P, Jackson JB, Bagenda D, Omer SB, Donnell D, Nakabiito C, Eure C, et al. 2010. Analysis of HIV tropism in Ugandan infants. Curr HIV Res 8: 498-503.
17. Cicala C, Martinelli E, McNally JP, Goode DJ, Gopaul R, Hiatt J, Jelicic K, KottililS, Macleod K, O'Shea A, et al. 2009. The integrin α4β7 forms a complex with cell-surface CD4 and defines a T-cell subset that is highly susceptible to infection by HIV-1. Proc Natl Acad Sci 106: 20877-20882.
18. Clark SJ, Saag MS, Decker WD, Campbell-Hill S, Roberson JL, Veldkamp PJ, Kappes JC, Hahn BH, Shaw GM. 1991. High titers of cytopathic virus in plasma of patients with symptomatic primary HIV-1 infection. N Engl J Med 324: 954-960.
19. Clayton F, Snow G, Reka S, Kotler DP. 1997. Selective depletion of rectal lamina propria rather than lymphoid aggregate CD4 lymphocytes in HIV infection. Clin Exp Immunol 107: 288-292.
20. Cohen MS, Shaw GM, McMichael AJ, Haynes BF. 2011a. Acute HIV-1 infection-basic, clinical, and public health perspectives. N Engl J Med 364: 1943-1954.
21. Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, Gamble T, Hosseinipour MC, KumarasamyN, Hakim JG, Kumwenda J, Grinsztejn B, Pilotto JHS. 2011b. Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med 365: 493-505.
22. Collins KB, Patterson BK, Naus GJ, Landers DV, Gupta P. 2000. Development of an in vitro organ culture model to study transmission of HIV-1 in the female genital tract. Nat Med 6: 475-479.
23. Cummins JE Jr., Guarner J, Flowers L, Guenthner PC, Bartlett J, Morken T, Grohskopf LA, Paxton L, Dezzutti CS. 2007. Preclinical testing of candidate topical microbicides for anti-human immunodeficiency virus type 1 activity and tissue toxicity in a human cervical explant culture. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 51: 1770-1779.
24. Damond F, Avettand-Fenoel V, Collin G, Roquebert B, Plantier JC, Ganon A, Sizmann D, Babiel R, Glaubitz J, Chaix ML, et al. 2010. Evaluation of an upgraded version of the Roche Cobas AmpliPrep/Cobas TaqMan HIV-1 test for HIV-1 load quantification. J Clin Microbiol 48: 1413-1416.
25. Derdeyn CA, Decker JM, Bibollet-Ruche F, Mokili JL, Muldoon M, Denham SA, Heil ML, Kasolo F, Musonda R, Hahn BH, et al. 2004. Envelope-constrained neutralization-sensitive HIV-1 after heterosexual transmission. Science 303: 2019-2022.
26. Dinh MH, Fahrbach KM, Hope TJ. 2011. The role of the foreskin in male circumcision: An evidence-based review. Am J Reprod Immunol 65: 279-283.
27. Dunkle KL, Stephenson R, Karita E, Chomba E, Kayitenkore K, Vwalika C, Greenberg L, Allen S. 2008. New heterosexually transmitted HIV infections in married or cohabiting couples in urban Zambia and Rwanda: An analysis of survey and clinical data. Lancet 371: 2183-2191.
28. Edwards JN, Morris HB. 1985. Langerhans' cells and lymphocyte subsets in the female genital tract. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 92: 974-982.
29. El-Sadr WM, Mayer KH, Hodder SL. 2010. AIDS in America-forgotten but not gone. N Engl J Med 362: 967-970.
30. Eshleman SH, Khaki L, Laeyendecker O, Piwowar-Manning E, Johnson-Lewis L, Husnik M, Koblin B, Coates T, Chesney M, Vallari A, et al. 2009. Detection of individuals with acute HIV-1 infection using the ARCHITECT HIV Ag/Ab Combo assay. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 52: 121-124.
31. Fideli US, Allen SA, Musonda R, Trask S, Hahn BH, Weiss H, Mulenga J, KasoloF, Vermund SH, Aldrovandi GM. 2001. Virologic and immunologic determinants of heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in Africa. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 17: 901-910.
32. Fiebig EW, Wright DJ, Rawal BD, Garrett PE, Schumacher RT, Peddada L, Heldebrant C, Smith R, Conrad A, Kleinman SH, et al. 2003. Dynamics of HIV viremia and antibody seroconversion in plasma donors: Implications for diagnosis and staging of primary HIV infection. AIDS 17: 1871-1879.
33. Fischer W, Ganusov VV, Giorgi EE, Hraber PT, Keele BF, Leitner T, Han CS, Gleasner CD, Green L, Lo CC, et al. 2010. Transmission of single HIV-1 genomes and dynamics of early immune escape revealed by ultra-deep sequencing. PLoS One 5: e12303.
34. Fischetti L, Barry SM, Hope TJ, Shattock RJ. 2009. HIV-1 infection of human penile explant tissue and protection by candidate microbicides. AIDS 23: 319-328.
35. Fletcher P, Kiselyeva Y, Wallace G, Romano J, Griffin G, Margolis L, Shattock R. 2005. The nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor UC-781 inhibits human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection of human cervical tissue and dissemination by migratory cells. J Virol 79: 11179-11186.
36. Fletcher PS, Elliott J, Grivel JC, Margolis L, Anton P, McGowan I, Shattock RJ. 2006. Ex vivo culture of human colorectal tissue for the evaluation of candidate microbicides. AIDS 20: 1237-1245.
37. Frost SD, Liu Y, Pond SL, Chappey C, Wrin T, Petropoulos CJ, Little SJ, RichmanDD. 2005. Characterization of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) envelope variation and neutralizing antibody responses during transmission of HIV-1 subtype B. J Virol 79: 6523-6527.
38. Gaines H, von Sydow M, Pehrson PO, Lundbegh P. 1988. Clinical picture of primary HIV infection presenting as a glandular-fever-like illness. BMJ 297: 1363-1368.
39. Galvin SR, Cohen MS. 2004. The role of sexually transmitted diseases in HIV transmission. Nat Rev Microbiol 2: 33-42.
40. Gilbert MT, Rambaut A, Wlasiuk G, Spira TJ, Pitchenik AE, Worobey M. 2007. The emergence of HIV/AIDS in the Americas and beyond. Proc Natl Acad Sci 104: 18566-18570.
41. Gnanakaran S, Bhattacharya T, Daniels M, Keele BF, Hraber PT, Lapedes AS, Shen T, Gaschen B, Krishnamoorthy M, Li H, Decker JM. 2011. Recurrent signature patterns in HIV-1 B clade envelope glycoproteins associated with either early or chronic infections. PloS Pathog 7: e1002209.
42. Gray RH, Wawer MJ, Brookmeyer R, Sewankambo NK, Serwadda D, Wabwire-Mangen F, Lutalo T, Li X, vanCott T, Quinn TC. 2001. Probability of HIV-1 transmission per coital act in monogamous, heterosexual, HIV-1-discordant couples in Rakai, Uganda. Lancet 357: 1149-1153.
43. Gray RH, Li X, Kigozi G, Serwadda D, Brahmbhatt H, Wabwire-Mangen F, Nalugoda F, Kiddugavu M, Sewankambo N, Quinn TC, et al. 2005. Increased risk of incident HIV during pregnancy in Rakai, Uganda: A prospective study. Lancet 366: 1182-1188.
44. Gray RH, Kigozi G, Serwadda D, Makumbi F, Watya S, Nalugoda F, Kiwanuka N, Moulton LH, Chaudhary MA, Chen MZ, et al. 2007. Male circumcision for HIV prevention in men in Rakai, Uganda: A randomised trial. Lancet 369: 657-666.
45. Greenhead P, Hayes P, Watts PS, Laing KG, Griffin GE, Shattock RJ. 2000. Parameters of human immunodeficiency virus infection of human cervical tissue and inhibition by vaginal virucides. J Virol 74: 5577-5586.
46. Grivel JC, Elliott J, Lisco A, Biancoto A, Condack C, Shattock RJ, McGowan I, Margolis L, Anton P. 2007. HIV-1 pathogenesis differs in rectosigmoid and tonsillar tissues infected ex vivo with CCR5-and CXCR4-tropic HIV-1. AIDS 21: 1263-1272.
47. Grobler J, Gray CM, Rademeyer C, Seoighe C, Ramjee G, Karim SA, Morris L, Williamson C. 2004. Incidence of HIV-1 dual infection and its association with increased viral load set point in a cohort of HIV-1 subtype C-infected female sex workers. J Infect Dis 190: 1355-1359.
48. + T-cell depletion in gut lymphoid tissue during primary human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection and substantial delay in restoration following highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Virol 77: 11708-11717.
49. Haaland RE, Hawkins PA, Salazar-Gonzalez J, Johnson A, Tichacek A, Karita E, Manigart O, Mulenga J, Keele BF, Shaw GM, et al. 2009. Inflammatory genital infections mitigate a severe genetic bottleneck in heterosexual transmission of subtype A and C HIV-1. PLoS Pathog 5: e1000274.
50. Haase AT. 2010. Targeting early infection to prevent HIV-1 mucosal transmission. Nature 464: 217-223.
51. Heise C, Miller CJ, Lackner A, Dandekar S. 1994. Primary acute simian immunodeficiency virus infection of intestinal lymphoid tissue is associated with gastrointestinal dysfunction. J Infect Dis 169: 1116-1120.
52. Hemelaar J, Gouws E, Ghys PD, Osmanov S. 2006. Global and regional distribution of HIV-1 genetic subtypes and recombinants in 2004. AIDS 20: W13-W23.
53. Hessell AJ, Hangartner L, Hunter M, Havenith CE, Beurskens FJ, Bakker JM, Lanigan CM, Landucci G, Forthal DN, Parren PW, et al. 2007. Fc receptor but not complement binding is important in antibody protection against HIV. Nature 449: 101-104.
54. Hessell AJ, Poignard P, Hunter M, Hangartner L, Tehrani DM, Bleeker WK ParrenPW, Marx PA, Burton DR. 2009a. Effective, low-titer antibody protection against low-dose repeated mucosal SHIV challenge in macaques. Nat Med 15: 951-954.
55. Hessell AJ, Rakasz EG, Poignard P, Hangartner L, Landucci G, Forthal DN, KoffWC, Watkins DI, Burton DR. 2009b. Broadly neutralizing human anti-HIV antibody 2G12 is effective in protection against mucosal SHIV challenge even at low serum neutralizing titers. PLoS Pathog 5: e1000433.
56. Hladik F, McElrath MJ. 2008. Setting the stage: Host invasion by HIV. Nat Rev Immunol 8: 447-457.
57. Hladik F, Sakchalathorn P, Ballweber L, Lentz G, Fialkow M, Eschenbach D, McElrath MJ. 2007. Initial events in establishing vaginal entry and infection by human immunodeficiency virus type-1. Immunity 26: 257-270.
58. Hu J, Gardner MB, Miller CJ. 2000. Simian immunodeficiency virus rapidly penetrates the cervicovaginal mucosa after intravaginal inoculation and infects intraepithelial dendritic cells. J Virol 74: 6087-6095.
59. Hu Q, Frank I, Williams V, Santos JJ, Watts P, Griffin GE, Moore JP, Pope M, Shattock RJ. 2004. Blockade of attachment and fusion receptors inhibits HIV-1 infection of human cervical tissue. J Exp Med 199: 1065-1075.
60. Hudgens MG, Longini IM Jr., Vanichseni S, Hu DJ, Kitayaporn D, Mock PA, Halloran ME, Satten GA, Choopanya K, Mastro TD. 2002. Subtype-specific transmission probabilities for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 among injecting drug users in Bangkok, Thailand. Am J Epidemiol 155: 159-168.
61. Isaacman-Beck J, Hermann EA, Yi Y, Ratcliffe SJ, Mulenga J, Allen S, Hunter E, Derdeyn CA, Collman RG. 2009. Heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 subtype C: Macrophage tropism, alternative coreceptor use, and the molecular anatomy of CCR5 utilization. J Virol 83: 8208-8220.
62. Jensen MA, Li FS, van 't Wout AB, Nickle DC, Shriner D, He HX, McLaughlin S, Shankarappa R, Margolick JB, Mullins JI. 2003. Improved coreceptor usage prediction and genotypic monitoring of R5-to-X4 transition by motif analysis of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 env V3 loop sequences. J Virol 77: 13376-13388.
63. + memory T cells harbor most Th-17 cells and are preferentially infected during acute SIV infection. Mucosal Immunol 2: 439-449.
64. Kearney M, Maldarelli F, Shao W, Margolick JB, Daar ES, Mellors JW, Rao V, Coffin JM, Palmer S. 2009. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 population genetics and adaptation in newly infected individuals. J Virol 83: 2715-2727.
65. Keele BF, Giorgi EE, Salazar-Gonzalez JF, Decker JM, Pham KT, Salazar MG, SunC, Grayson T, Wang S, Li H, et al. 2008. Identification and characterization of transmitted and early founder virus envelopes in primary HIV-1 infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci 105: 7552-7557.
66. Keele BF, Li H, Learn GH, Hraber P, Giorgi EE, Grayson T, Sun C, Chen Y, YehWW, Letvin NL, et al. 2009. Low-dose rectal inoculation of rhesus macaques by SIVsmE660 or SIVmac251 recapitulates human mucosal infection by HIV-1. J Exp Med 206: 1117-1134.
67. Korber B, Muldoon M, Theiler J, Gao F, Gupta R, Lapedes A, Hahn BH, WolinskyS, Bhattacharya T. 2000. Timing the ancestor of the HIV-1 pandemic strains. Science 288: 1789-1796.
68. Kotler DP, Gaetz HP, Lange M, Klein EB, Holt PR. 1984. Enteropathy associated with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Ann Intern Med 101: 421-428.
69. Kouyos RD, von Wyl V, Yerly S, Boni J, Taffe P, Shah C, Burgisser P, Klimkait T, Weber R, Hirschel B, et al. 2010. Molecular epidemiology reveals long-term changes in HIV type 1 subtype B transmission in Switzerland. J Infect Dis 201: 1488-1497.
70. Learn GH, Muthui D, Brodie SJ, Zhu T, Diem K, Mullins JI, Corey L. 2002. Virus population homogenization following acute human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. J Virol 76: 11953-11959.
71. Lee HY, Giorgi EE, Keele BF, Gaschen B, Athreya GS, Salazar-Gonzalez JF, PhamKT, Goepfert PA, Kilby JM, Saag MS, et al. 2009. Modeling sequence evolution in acute HIV-1 infection. J Theor Biol 261: 341-360.
72. Li M, Gao F, Mascola JR, Stamatatos L, Polonis VR, Koutsoukos M, Voss G, Goepfert P, Gilbert P, Greene KM, et al. 2005a. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 env clones from acute and early subtype B infections for standardized assessments of vaccine-elicited neutralizing antibodies. J Virol 79: 10108-10125.
73. + T cells. Nature 434: 1148-1152.
74. Li M, Salazar-Gonzalez JF, Derdeyn CA, Morris L, Williamson C, Robinson JE, Decker JM, Li Y, Salazar MG, Polonis VR, et al. 2006. Genetic and neutralization properties of subtype C human immunodeficiency virus type 1 molecular env clones from acute and early heterosexually acquired infections in Southern Africa. J Virol 80: 11776-11790.
75. Li Q, Estes JD, Duan L, Jessurun J, Pambuccian S, Forster C, Wietgrefe S, Zupancic M, Schacker T, Reilly C, et al. 2008. Simian immunodeficiency virus-induced intestinal cell apoptosis is the underlying mechanism of the regenerative enteropathy of early infection. J Infect Dis 197: 420-429.
76. Li Q, Estes JD, Schlievert PM, Duan L, Brosnahan AJ, Southern PJ, Reilly CS, Peterson ML, Schultz-Darken N, Brunner KG, et al. 2009a. Glycerol monolaurate prevents mucosal SIV transmission. Nature 458: 1034-1038.
77. Li Q, Smith AJ, Schacker TW, Carlis JV, Duan L, Reilly CS, Haase AT. 2009b. Microarray analysis of lymphatic tissue reveals stage-specific, gene expression signatures in HIV-1 infection. J Immunol 183: 1975-1982.
78. Li H, Bar KJ, Wang S, Decker JM, Chen Y, Sun C, Salazar-Gonzalez JF, SalazarMG, Learn GH, Morgan CJ, et al. 2010. High multiplicity infection by HIV-1 in men who have sex with men. PLoS Pathog 6: e1000890.
79. Lifson JD, Nowak MA, Goldstein S, Rossio JL, Kinter A, Vasquez G, Wiltrout TA, Brown C, Schneider D, Wahl L, et al. 1997. The extent of early viral replication is a critical determinant of the natural history of simian immunodeficiency virus infection. J Virol 71: 9508-9514.
80. Lindback S, Karlsson AC, Mittler J, Blaxhult A, Carlsson M, Briheim G, Sonnerborg A, Gaines H. 2000a. Viral dynamics in primary HIV-1 infection. Karolinska Institutet Primary HIV Infection Study Group. AIDS 14: 2283-2291.
81. Lindback S, Thorstensson R, Karlsson AC, von Sydow M, Flamholc L, BlaxhultA, Sonnerborg A, Biberfeld G, Gaines H. 2000b. Diagnosis of primary HIV-1 infection and duration of follow-up after HIV exposure. Karolinska Institute Primary HIV Infection Study Group. AIDS 14: 2333-2339.
82. Little SJ, McLean AR, Spina CA, Richman DD, Havlir DV. 1999. Viral dynamics of acute HIV-1 infection. J Exp Med 190: 841-850.
83. Liu J, Keele BF, Li H, Keating S, Norris PJ, Carville A, Mansfield KG, Tomaras GD, Haynes BF, Kolodkin-Gal D, et al. 2010. Low-dose mucosal simian immunodeficiency virus infection restricts early replication kinetics and transmitted virus variants in rhesus monkeys. J Virol 84: 10406-10412.
84. Long EM, Martin HL Jr., Kreiss JK, Rainwater SM, Lavreys L, Jackson DJ, RakwarJ, Mandaliya K, Overbaugh J. 2000. Gender differences in HIV-1 diversity at time of infection. Nat Med 6: 71-75.
85. Ma Z, Lu FX, Torten M, Miller CJ. 2001. The number and distribution of immune cells in the cervicovaginal mucosa remain constant throughout the menstrual cycle of rhesus macaques. Clin Immunol 100: 240-249.
86. Ma Z-M, Stone M, Piatak M Jr., Schweighardt B, Haigwood NL, Montefiori D, Lifson JD, Busch MP, Miller CJ. 2009. High specific infectivity of plasma virus from the pre-ramp-up and ramp-up stages of acute simian immunodeficiency virus infection. J Virol 83: 3288-3297.
87. Ma Z-M, Keele BF, Qureshi H, Stone M, DeSilva V, Fritts L, Lifson JD, Miller CJ. 2011. SIVmac251 is inefficiently transmitted to rhesus macaques by penile inoculation with a single SIVenv variant found in ramp-up phase plasma. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses doi: 10. 1089/aid. 2011. 0090.
88. Maher D, Wu X, Schacker T, Horbul J, Southern P. 2005. HIV binding, penetration, and primary infection in human cervicovaginal tissue. Proc Natl Acad Sci 102: 11504-11509.
89. Malim MH, Bieniasz PD. 2011. HIV restriction factors and mechanisms of evasion. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med doi: 10. 1101/cshperspect. a006940.
90. Mascola JR. 2002. Passive transfer studies to elucidate the role of antibody-mediated protection against HIV-1. Vaccine 20: 1922-1925.
91. Masharsky AE, Dukhovlinova EN, Verevochkin SV, Toussova OV, Skochilov RV, Anderson JA, Hoffman I, Cohen MS, Swanstrom R, Kozlov AP. 2010. A substantial transmission bottleneck among newly and recently HIV-1-infected injection drug users in St Petersburg, Russia. J Infect Dis 201: 1697-1702.
92. + T cells in multiple tissues during acute SIV infection. Nature 434: 1093-1097.
93. McElrath MJ, De Rosa SC, Moodie Z, Dubey S, Kierstead L, Janes H, Defawe OD, Carter DK, Hural J, Akondy R, et al. 2008. HIV-1 vaccine-induced immunity in the test-of-concept step study: A case-cohort analysis. Lancet 372: 1894-1905.
94. + T lymphocytes from effector sites in the gastrointestinal tract. J Exp Med 200: 761-770.
95. Merbah M, Introini A, Fitzgerald W, Grivel JC, Lisco A, Vanpouille C, Margolis L. 2011. Cervico-vaginal tissue ex vivo as a model to study early events in HIV-1 infection. Am J Reprod Immunol 65: 268-278.
96. Miller CJ, Li Q, Abel K, Kim EY, Ma ZM, Wietgrefe S, La Franco-Scheuch L, Compton L, Duan L, Shore MD, et al. 2005. Propagation and dissemination of infection after vaginal transmission of simian immunodeficiency virus. J Virol 79: 9217-9227.
97. Miller WC, Rosenberg NE, Rutstein SE, Powers KA. 2010. Role of acute and early HIV infection in the sexual transmission of HIV. Curr Opin HIV AIDS 5: 277-282.
98. Miyake A, Ibuki K, Enose Y, Suzuki H, Horiuchi R, Motohara M, Saito N, Nakasone T, Honda M, Watanabe T, et al. 2006. Rapid dissemination of a pathogenic simian/human immunodeficiency virus to systemic organs and active replication in lymphoid tissues following intrarectal infection. J Gen Virol 87: 1311-1320.
99. + T cells as key targets in mucosal transmission. PLoS Pathog 7: e1001301.
100. Nowak MA, Lloyd AL, Vasquez GM, Wiltrout TA, Wahl LM, Bischofberger N, Williams J, Kinter A, Fauci AS, Hirsch VM, et al. 1997. Viral dynamics of primary viremia and antiretroviral therapy in simian immunodeficiency virus infection. J Virol 71: 7518-7525.
101. Nugent CT, Dockter J, Bernardin F, Hecht R, Smith D, Delwart E, Pilcher C, Richman D, Busch M, Giachetti C. 2009. Detection of HIV-1 in alternative specimen types using the APTIMA HIV-1 RNA Qualitative Assay. J Virol Methods 159: 10-14.
102. Palmer S, Wiegand AP, Maldarelli F, Bazmi H, Mican JM, Polis M, Dewar RL, Planta A, Liu S, Metcalf JA, et al. 2003. New real-time reverse transcriptase-initiated PCR assay with single-copy sensitivity for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 RNA in plasma. J Clin Microbiol 41: 4531-4536.
103. Pearson JE, Krapivsky P, Perelson AS. 2011. Stochastic theory of early viral infection: Continuous versus burst production of virions. PLoS Comput Biol 7: e1001058.
104. Pope M, Haase AT. 2003. Transmission, acute HIV-1 infection and the quest for strategies to prevent infection. Nat Med 9: 847-852.
105. Poss M, Martin HL, Kreiss JK, Granville L, Chohan B, Nyange P, Mandaliya K, Overbaugh J. 1995. Diversity in virus populations from genital secretions and peripheral blood from women recently infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Virol 69: 8118-8122.
106. Powers KA, Poole C, Pettifor AE, Cohen MS. 2008. Rethinking the heterosexual infectivity of HIV-1: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 8: 553-563.
107. Pudney J, Quayle AJ, Anderson DJ. 2005. Immunological microenvironments in the human vagina and cervix: Mediators of cellular immunity are concentrated in the cervical transformation zone. Biol Reprod 73: 1253-1263.
108. Quinn TC. 2007. Circumcision and HIV transmission. Curr Opin Infect Dis 20: 33-38.
109. Quinn TC, Wawer MJ, Sewankambo N, Serwadda D, Li C, Wabwire-Mangen F, Meehan MO, Lutalo T, Gray RH. 2000. Viral load and heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Rakai Project Study Group. N Engl J Med 342: 921-929.
110. Resch W, Hoffman N, Swanstrom R. 2001. Improved success of phenotype prediction of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 from envelope variable loop 3 sequence using neural networks. Virology 288: 51-62.
111. Ribeiro RM, Qin L, Chavez LL, Li D, Self SG, Perelson AS. 2010. Estimation of the initial viral growth rate and basic reproductive number during acute HIV-1 infection. J Virol 84: 6096-6102.
112. Richman DD, Wrin T, Little SJ, Petropoulos CJ. 2003. Rapid evolution of the neutralizing antibody response to HIV type 1 infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci 100: 4144-4149.
113. Ridzon R, Gallagher K, Ciesielski C, Ginsberg MB, Robertson BJ, Luo CC, DeMaria A Jr., 1997. Simultaneous transmission of human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis C virus from a needle-stick injury. N Engl J Med 336: 919-922.
114. Ritola K, Pilcher CD, Fiscus SA, Hoffman NG, Nelson JA, Kitrinos KM, Hicks CB, Eron JJ Jr., Swanstrom R. 2004. Multiple V1/V2 env variants are frequently present during primary infection with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Virol 78: 11208-11218.
115. Russell ES, Kwiek JJ, Keys J, Barton K, Mwapasa V, Montefiori DC, Meshnick SR, Swanstrom R. 2011. The genetic bottleneck in vertical transmission of subtype C HIV-1 is not driven by selection of especially neutralization-resistant virus from the maternal viral population. J Virol 85: 8253-8262.
116. Saba E, Grivel JC, Vanpouille C, Brichacek B, Fitzgerald W, Margolis L, Lisco A. 2010. HIV-1 sexual transmission: Early events of HIV-1 infection of human cervico-vaginal tissue in an optimized ex vivo model. Mucosal Immunol 3: 280-290.
117. Sacktor N, Nakasujja N, Skolasky RL, Rezapour M, Robertson K, Musisi S, Katabira E, Ronald A, Clifford DB, Laeyendecker O, et al. 2009. HIV subtype D is associated with dementia, compared with subtype A, in immunosuppressed individuals at risk of cognitive impairment in Kampala, Uganda. Clin Infect Dis 49: 780-786.
118. Sagar M, Kirkegaard E, Long EM, Celum C, Buchbinder S, Daar ES, Overbaugh J. 2004. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) diversity at time of infection is not restricted to certain risk groups or specific HIV-1 subtypes. J Virol 78: 7279-7283.
119. Sagar M, Laeyendecker O, Lee S, Gamiel J, Wawer MJ, Gray RH, Serwadda D, Sewankambo NK, Shepherd JC, Toma J, et al. 2009. Selection of HIV variants with signature genotypic characteristics during heterosexual transmission. J Infect Dis 199: 580-589.
120. Salazar-Gonzalez JF, Bailes E, Pham KT, Salazar MG, Guffey MB, Keele BF, Derdeyn CA, Farmer P, Hunter E, Allen S, et al. 2008. Deciphering human immunodeficiency virus type 1 transmission and early envelope diversification by single-genome amplification and sequencing. J Virol 82: 3952-3970.
121. Salazar-Gonzalez JF, Salazar MG, Keele BF, Learn GH, Giorgi EE, Li H, DeckerJM, Wang S, Baalwa J, Kraus MH, et al. 2009. Genetic identity, biological phenotype, and evolutionary pathways of transmitted/founder viruses in acute and early HIV-1 infection. J Exp Med 206: 1273-1289.
122. Schacker T, Collier AC, Hughes J, Shea T, Corey L. 1996. Clinical and epidemiologic features of primary HIV infection. Ann Intern Med 125: 257-264.
123. Schacker T, Little S, Connick E, Gebhard K, Zhang ZQ, Krieger J, Pryor J, HavlirD, Wong JK, Schooley RT, et al. 2001. Productive infection of T cells in lymphoid tissues during primary and early human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Infect Dis 183: 555-562.
124. Sharp PM, Hahn BH. 2011. Origins of HIV and the AIDS pandemic. Cold Spring Harbor Perspect Med doi: 10. 1101cshperspect. a006841.
125. Shen R, Richter HE, Clements RH, Novak L, Huff K, Bimczok D, Sankaran-Walters S, Dandekar S, Clapham PR, Smythies LE, et al. 2009. Macrophages in vaginal but not intestinal mucosa are monocyte-like and permissive to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. J Virol 83: 3258-3267.
126. Shen R, Smythies LE, Clements RH, Novak L, Smith PD. 2010. Dendritic cells transmit HIV-1 through human small intestinal mucosa. J Leukoc Biol 87: 663-670.
127. Stone M, Keele BF, Ma ZM, Bailes E, Dutra J, Hahn BH, Shaw GM, Miller CJ. 2010. A limited number of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) env variants are transmitted to rhesus macaques vaginally inoculated with SIVmac251. J Virol 84: 7083-7095.
128. Taylor BS, Sobieszczyk ME, McCutchan FE, Hammer SM. 2008. The challenge of HIV-1 subtype diversity. N Engl J Med 358: 1590-1602.
129. UNAIDS. 2010. Global Report 2010, Geneva. http: //www. unaids. org/globalreport/documents/20101123_GlobalReport_full_en. pdf.
130. + T cell depletion and viral replication in SIV infection. Science 280: 427-431.
131. Wawer MJ, Gray RH, Sewankambo NK, Serwadda D, Li X, Laeyendecker O, Kiwanuka N, Kigozi G, Kiddugavu M, Lutalo T, et al. 2005. Rates of HIV-1 transmission per coital act, by stage of HIV-1 infection, in Rakai, Uganda. J Infect Dis 191: 1403-1409.
132. Wei X, Decker JM, Wang S, Hui H, Kappes JC, Wu X, Salazar-Gonzalez JF, SalazarMG, Kilby JM, Saag MS, et al. 2003. Antibody neutralization and escape by HIV-1. Nature 422: 307-312.
133. Wilen CB, Parrish NF, Pfaff JM, Decker JM, Henning EA, Haim H, Sodroski J, Haynes BF, Montefiori DC, Tilton JC, et al. 2011a. Phenotypic and immunologic comparison of clade B transmitted/founder and chronic HIV-1 envelope glycoproteins. J Virol (in press).
134. Wilen CB, Tilton JC, Doms RW. 2011b. Cell binding and entry. Cold Spring Harbor Perspect Med doi: 10. 1101/cshperspect. a006866.
135. Wira CR, Veronese F. 2011. Sexual transmission of HIV in the 21st century. Am J Reprod Immunol 65: 181-376.
136. Wolfs TF, Zwart G, Bakker M, Goudsmit J. 1992. HIV-1 genomic RNA diversification following sexual and parenteral virus transmission. Virology 189: 103-110.
137. Wolinsky SM, Wike CM, Korber BT, Hutto C, Parks WP, Rosenblum LL, Kunstman KJ, Furtado MR, Munoz JL. 1992. Selective transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type-1 variants from mothers to infants. Science 255: 1134-1137.
138. Worobey M, Gemmel M, Teuwen DE, Haselkorn T, Kunstman K, Bunce M, Muyembe JJ, Kabongo JM, Kalengayi RM, Van Marck E, et al. 2008. Direct evidence of extensive diversity of HIV-1 in Kinshasa by 1960. Nature 455: 661-664.
139. Yeh WW, Rao SS, Lim S-Y, Zhang J, Hraber PT, Brassard LM, Luedemann C, Todd JP, Dodson A, Shen L. 2011. The TRIM5 gene modulates penile mucosal acquisition of simian immunodeficiency virus in Rhesus monkeys. J Virol 85: 10389-10398.
140. Zhang LQ, MacKenzie P, Cleland A, Holmes EC, Brown AJ, Simmonds P. 1993. Selection for specific sequences in the external envelope protein of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 upon primary infection. J Virol 67: 3345-3356.
141. + T cells. Science 286: 1353-1357.
142. +T cells in transmission and acute simian immunodeficiency virus infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci 101: 5640-5645.
143. Zhu T, Mo H, Wang N, Nam DS, Cao Y, Koup RA, Ho DD. 1993. Genotypic and phenotypic characterization of HIV-1 patients with primary infection. Science 261: 1179-1181.
144. Zhu T, Wang N, Carr A, Nam DS, Moor-Jankowski R, Cooper DA, Ho DD. 1996. Genetic characterization of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in blood and genital secretions: Evidence for viral compartmentalization and selection during sexual transmission. J Virol 70: 3098-3107.