Modern genocidal dehumanization: A new model

Patterns of Prejudice

Volumn 47, Issue 2, 2013, Pages 139-161

  Savage, Rowan ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY SYDNEY   (Australia)

Author keywords

Dehumanization; Discourse; Genocide; In group; Language; Metaphor; Modernity; Otherness; Out group; Violence

Indexed keywords

EID: 84876134790     PISSN: 0031322X     EISSN: 14617331     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/0031322X.2012.754575     Document Type: Article

References (129)

1. For a discussion of this problem from the perspective of social psychology, see Cristian Tileagǎ, 'Ideologies of moral exclusion: a critical discursive reframing of depersonalization, delegitimization and dehumanization', British Journal of Social Psychology, vol. 46, no. 4, 2007, 717-37(732).
2. This may be beginning to change: see David Livingstone Smith, Less Than Human: Why We Demean, Enslave, and Exterminate Others (New York: St Martin's Press 2011)
3. Johannes Lang, 'Questioning dehumanization: intersubjective dimensions of violence in the Nazi concentration and death camps', Holocaust and Genocide Studies, vol. 24, no. 2, 2010, 225-46.
4. For quantitative sociological research on dehumanization (also a new development) in Sudanese genocide, John Hagan and Wenona Rymond-Richmond, 'The collective dynamics of racial dehumanization and genocidal victimization in Darfur', American Sociological Review, vol. 73, no. 6, 2008, 875-902.
5. For empirical demonstrations of dehumanization as a causal factor in mistreatment, Albert Bandura, 'Selective moral disengagement in the exercise of moral agency', Journal of Moral Education, vol. 31, no. 2, 2002, 101-19(109)
6. Albert Bandura, Claudio Barbaranelli, Gian Vittorio Caprara and Concetta Pastorelli, 'Mechanisms of moral disengagement in the exercise of moral agency', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 71, no. 2, 1996, 364-74(366, 371)
7. Albert Bandura, 'Selective activation and disengagement of moral control', Journal of Social Issues, vol. 46, no. 1, 1990, 27-46(38-41).
8. Morton Deutsch, 'Psychological roots of moral exclusion', Journal of Social Issues, vol. 46, no. 1, 1990, 21-5
9. Ervin Staub, The Roots of Evil: The Origins of Genocide and Other Group Violence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1989), 58
10. Ervin Staub, 'Moral exclusion, personal goal theory, and extreme destructiveness', Journal of Social Issues, vol. 46, no. 1, 1990, 47-64(52-4).
11. Daniel Bar-Tal on ethnocentrism: Daniel Bar-Tal, 'Causes and consequences of delegitimization: models of conflict and ethnocentrism', Journal of Social Issues, vol. 46, no. 1, 1990, 65-81 (73-8).
12. I use the term 'Other' in the tradition of the negative or pejorative construction of the Other running from the work of G. W. F. Hegel, through that of Simone de Beauvoir and Edward Said, and now widely employed in the humanities. 6 Alvarez frames the problem thus: 'The relevant question is not so much the commonly asked one as to why didn't more individuals resist or refuse to comply but rather how did the participants define their actions so as to resolve their normative conflicts and enable them to comply'.
13. Alexander Alvarez, 'Adjusting to genocide: the techniques of neutralization and the Holocaust', Social Science History, vol. 21, no. 2, 1997, 139-78(142). For the concept of 'cognitive dissonance
14. Leon Festinger's seminal work, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (London: Tavistock Publications 1962). While this concept has been critiqued and problematized, the essential contention I make, that engagement in the genocidal killing of civilians is not an 'everyday' activity automatically considered legitimate in itself and that, like other activities, it must be 'accounted for' in discursive terms, is not controversial.
15. The discursivity of dehumanization has been recognized not only within the humanities but also by various scholars in the field of social psychology. Michael Billig, 'Henri Tajfel's "Cognitive aspects of prejudice" and the psychology of bigotry', British Journal of Social Psychology, vol. 41, no. 2, 2002, 171-88(185-6).
16. There is now a great deal of social psychological work on infrahumanization, the perception of others as less human, by scholars including Emanuele Castano, Nick Haslam and others. The blurring of boundaries between dehumanization and infrahumanization as distinct concepts is also a trend in social psychology, Joris Lammers and Diederik A. Stapel, 'Power increases dehumanization', Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, vol. 14, no. 1, 2011, 113-26(115).
17. For a clearly formulated and dually differentiated definition and model of dehumanization in social psychology, Nick Haslam, Stephen Loughnan, Yoshihisa Kashima and Paul Bain, 'Attributing and denying humanness to others', European Review of Social Psychology, vol. 19, no. 1, 2009, 55-85(56-66).
18. Tileagǎ, 'Ideologies of moral exclusion', 721.
19. The question of the self-construction of the in-group in the genocidal context has been discussed by such scholars as James Waller, Emanuele Castano, Daniel Bar-Tal and Herbert Hirsch. For an analysis of the process of 'superiorization' of the perpetrator group in genocide as the inverse to dehumanization of victims, Henry C. Theriault, 'Rethinking dehumanization in genocide', in Richard G. Hovannisian (ed.), The Armenian Genocide: Cultural and Ethical Legacies (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Press 2007), 27-40(31-2). Theriault argues that in fact it is perpetrators' understanding of the humanity of the victims that can motivate genocide and that allows the former to take pleasure in genocidal action but, in making this argument, he recognizes that perpetrators see their victims as 'essentially other' (37).
20. Zygmunt Bauman, 'The duty to remember,-But what?', in James Kaye and Bo Stra°th (eds), Enlightenment and Genocide, Contradictions of Modernity (Brussels: Peter Lang 2000), 31-57(37).
21. Scott Straus, TheOrder of Genocide:Race, Power, andWar inRwanda (Ithaca,NYand London: Cornell University Press 2006), 225.
22. Carl F. Graumann, 'Verbal discrimination: a neglected chapter in the social psychology of aggression', Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, vol. 28, no. 1, 1998, 41-1(51-2)
23. Smith, Less Than Human, 186.
24. This definition is close, although not identical, to Opotow's 'moral exclusion' in Susan Opotow, 'Moral exclusion and injustice: an introduction', Journal of Social Issues, vol. 46, no. 1, 1990, 1-20(1): 'Those who are morally excluded are perceived as nonentities, expendable, or undeserving; consequently, harming them appears acceptable, appropriate, or just.' Opotow, however, conceptualizes dehumanization as one among many manifestations of moral exclusion (10-11).
25. On the qualitatively similar relationship between genocidal perpetration and everyday identity processes, David Moshman, 'Us and them: identity and genocide', Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, vol. 7, no. 2, 2007, 115-34.
26. Peter J. Haas, 'The morality of Auschwitz: moral language and the Nazi ethic', Holocaust and Genocide Studies, vol. 3, no. 4, 1988, 383-93(388).
27. Lang, 'Questioning dehumanization', 230.
28. For a relevant discussion of moral disengagement in executioners and prison guards in the United States, Michael J. Osofsky, Albert Bandura and Philip G. Zimbardo, 'The role of moral disengagement in the execution process', Law and Human Behavior, vol. 29, no. 4, 2005, 371-93.
29. It should be noted here that not all genocide is enacted by the state (for example, the 'private' colonial genocide in frontier Australia); however, it is so enacted in the majority of cases.
30. Israel W. Charny and Daphna Fromer, 'A study of the readiness of Jewish/Israeli students in the health professions to authorize and execute involuntary mass euthanasia of "severely handicapped" patients', Holocaust and Genocide Studies, vol. 5, no. 3, 1990, 313-35.
31. Influential theories involving malign external influence, evil and/or a 'separate state' in which violence is committed, broadly speaking, include those of Christopher Browning, James Waller, Philip Zimbardo, Stanley Milgram, Robert Jay Lifton, Ervin Staub, Roy F. Baumeister, Zygmunt Bauman, Albert Bandura and others. Many of these authors, however, do discuss and problematize this concept. On the question of doing evil as opposed to constructing what evil is, see, 'The morality of Auschwitz', 387.
32. Lammers and Stapel, 'Power increases dehumanization', 115-16
33. Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara and Pastorelli, 'Mechanisms of moral disengagement in the exercise of moral agency', 364
34. Staub, 'Moral exclusion, personal goal theory, and extreme destructiveness', 59.
35. Donald Bloxham, 'Organized mass murder: structure, participation, and motivation in comparative perspective', Holocaust and Genocide Studies, vol. 22, no. 2, 2008, 204-45(204, 231)
36. Jacques Sémelin, 'Toward a vocabulary of massacre and genocide', Journal of Genocide Research, vol. 5, no. 2, 2003, 193-210(204)
37. Michael Mann, 'Were the perpetrators of genocide "ordinary men" or "real Nazis"? Results from fifteen hundred biographies', Holocaust and Genocide Studies, vol. 14, no. 3, 2000, 331-66(333)
38. Martha K. Huggins, Mika Haritos-Fatouros and Philip G. Zimbardo, Violence Workers: Police Torturers and Murderers Reconstruct Brazilian Atrocities (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press 2002), 139.
39. Isabel V. Hull, Military culture and "final solutions" in the colonies: the example of Wilhelminian Germany', in Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan, The Specter of Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2003), 141-62(154).
40. Kenneth Grundy and Michael Weinstein, The Ideologies of Violence (Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill Publishing 1974), 116.
41. Staub, Moral exclusion, personal goal theory, and extreme destructiveness', 55, on the way in which pre-existing cultural constructions regarding particular groups can predispose violence and/or genocide as a solution to a perceived problem.
42. Jean Hatzfeld, Machete Season: The Killers in Rwanda Speak, trans. from the French by Linda Coverdale (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux 2005), 144-5. While Hatzfeld's journalistic approach is problematic, his work contains interviews with perpetrators presented in a level of detail that is difficult to find in other sources; though see also Scott Straus (text) and Robert Lyons (photographs), Intimate Enemy: Images and Voices of the Rwandan Genocide (New York: Zone Books 2006). For a thorough analysis of the issues around Hatzfeld's text in the context of the study of genocidal perpetration
43. Madelaine Hron, 'Gukora and itsembatsemba: the "ordinary killers" in Jean Hatzfeld's Machete Season', Research in African Literatures, vol. 42, no. 2, 2011, 125-46.
44. Albert Bandura, 'Moral disengagement in the perpetration of inhumanities', Personality and Social Psychology Review, vol. 3, no. 3, 1999, 193-209(200). For a counter-argument as to the necessity of complete dehumanization in (Nazi) genocide,
45. Lang, 'Questioning dehumanization', 230-5.
46. Bar-Tal and Teichman conceive this level as 'psychological intergroup repertoire', Daniel Bar-Tal and Yona Teichman, Stereotypes and Prejudice in Conflict: Representations of Arabs in Israeli Jewish Society (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press 2005), 22-3, 30-1, 53-4.
47. Various scholars have pointed to the necessity for these different levels of analysis, and formulated models of stereotypes and prejudice, or of motivation for genocide, attempting to include both. See Frank Bajohr, 'The "folk community" and the persecution of the Jews: German society under National Socialist dictatorship, 1933-1945', Holocaust and Genocide Studies, vol. 20, no. 2, 2006, 183-206(183-4).
48. Bar-Tal and Teichman, Stereotypes and Prejudice in Conflict
49. James Waller, Becoming Evil: How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and Mass Killing (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press 2002)
50. Bandura, 'Selective moral disengagement in the exercise of moral agency', 115-16
51. Bandura, Moral disengagement in the perpetration of inhumanities', 207.
52. Sémelin, 'Toward a vocabulary of massacre and genocide', 200-2.
53. Norbert Finzsch, "'It is scarcely possible to conceive that human beings could be so hideous and loathsome": discourses of genocide in eighteenth-and nineteenthcentury America and Australia', in A. Dirk Moses and Dan Stone (eds), Colonialism and Genocide (London and New York: Routledge 2007), 1-19(6).
54. Hatzfeld, Machete Season, 227.
55. Stanley Cohen, States of Denial: Knowing about Atrocities and Suffering (Cambridge: Polity 2001), 58, 63.
56. Jacques Sémelin, Purify and Destroy: The Political Uses of Massacre and Genocide, trans. from the French by Cynthia Schoch (New York: Columbia University Press 2007), 79-80.
57. Robert Jay Lifton, The Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psychology of Genocide (New York: Basic Books 2000), 422, 445
58. Helen Fein, Accounting for Genocide: National Responses and Jewish Victimization during the Holocaust (New York: Free Press 1979), 7-8
59. Bar-Taland Teichman, Stereotypes and Prejudice in Conflict, 29.
60. Finzsch, "'It is scarcely possible to conceive that human beings could be so hideous and loathsome"', 19.
61. Herbert Hirsch, Genocide and the Politics of Memory: Studying Death to Preserve Life (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press 1995), 104. As regards threat, in particular, Bar-Tal ('Causes and consequences of delegitimization', 67) notes: 'When threat is perceived, it is real for the perceivers.
62. In terms of 'veridicity', some scholars have also attempted to include, in a definition of 'dehumanization', the fact that the out-group does not pose a veridical threat to the ingroup. However, for the same reasons, and because of the difficulty in objectively defining a 'veridical' as opposed to a 'non-veridical' threat, this does not seem to me a useful qualification. For discussion of the 'veridicity' of racial (and, by extension, identity) categorization in genocidal targeting and its political consequences in the context of dehumanization
63. Hagan and Rymond-Richmond, The collective dynamics of racial dehumanization and genocidal victimization in Darfur', 877-8.
64. Haas, 'The morality of Auschwitz', 385. David Livingstone Smith has argued against the 'constructionist' approach to dehumanization; but, in doing so, he employs a problematically essentialist bio-evolutionary model (in order to explain the undoubted similarities of different manifestations of dehumanization), one that also relies on the idea of 'intuitions' such as the concept of all humans 'looking human', and that suggests that dehumanization is 'always bound up with racism
65. Smith, Less Than Human, 3-4, 28-9, 32-3, 101, 156, 163, 239-51, 264, 272.
66. Smith, Less Than Human, 229-32.
67. Lammers and Stapel, Power increases dehumanization', 115.
68. Bar-Tal and Teichman, Stereotypes and Prejudice in Conflict, 54
69. Daniel Bar-Tal, Group Beliefs: A Conception for Analyzing Group Structure, Processes, and Behavior (New York: Springer-Verlag 1990), 96
70. Herbert C. Kelman and V. Lee Hamilton, Crimes of Obedience: Toward a Social Psychology of Authority and Responsibility (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press 1989), 19-20.
71. Leo Kuper and Helen Fein argue the reverse: Leo Kuper, Genocide: Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press 1981), 86, 92
72. Helen Fein, Genocide: A Sociological Perspective (London and Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications 1993).
73. Finzsch, "'It is scarcely possible to conceive that human beings could be so hideous and loathsome"', 5-6.
74. Haas, 'The morality of Auschwitz', 387. On this issue
75. Sémelin, Purify and Destroy, 239-40.
76. Haas, 'The morality of Auschwitz', 387.
77. Murray Edelman, Politics as Symbolic Action: Mass Arousal and Quiescence (Chicago: Markham Publishing Company 1971), 63.
78. I use the term 'modern' here 'epochally' in order to avoid entering into a debate about the definition and nature of 'modernity'. Arne Johan Vetlesen, 'Yugoslavia, genocide and modernity', in Kaye and Stråth (eds), Enlightenment and Genocide, Contradictions of Modernity, 151-83(152).
79. Michael Freeman, 'Genocide, civilization, and modernity', British Journal of Sociology, vol. 46, no. 2, 1995, 218-22.
80. Bauman, The duty to remember', 32-3.
81. For an overview of dehumanization in pre-modern history see Smith, Less Than Human, 29-46.
82. Freeman, 'Genocide, civilization, and modernity
83. Bauman, 'The duty to remember', 32-3.
84. On the novel possibility of genocide, see Bauman, The duty to remember', 40-1.
85. On expansionist justifications for violence, see Grundy and Weinstein, The Ideologies of Violence, 47. For the classic argument regarding the nation-state as legitimate violent actor
86. Max Weber, Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology, ed. Guenther Roth and Claus Wittich, trans. from the German by Ephraim Fischoff et al., 2 vols (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press 1978), I, 54.
87. This theme was also important for Norbert Elias's work on the 'civilizing process': Norbert Elias, The Civilizing Process: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, ed. Eric Dunning, Johan Goudsblom and Stephen Mennell, trans. from the German by Edmund Jephcott (Oxford and Malden, MA: Blackwell 2000).
88. Paul Bartrop, 'The relationship between war and genocide in the twentieth century: a consideration', Journal of Genocide Research, vol. 4 no. 4, 2002, 519-32(523-4, 529)
89. Martin Shaw, 'The general hybridity of war and genocide', Journal of Genocide Research, vol. 9, no. 3, 2007, 461-73(467-8).
90. Henri Zukier, 'The "mindless years"? A reconsideration of the psychological dimensions of the Holocaust, 1938-1945', Holocaust and Genocide Studies, vol. 11, no. 2, 1997, 190-212(197-8)
91. Bauman, The duty to remember', 52-3.
92. Smith, Less Than Human, 264.
93. Cohen, States of Denial, 60, 77, on the justification of 'deviance'. Cohen recognizes the fact that this theory developed regarding the individual within society, but argues that it can be generalized to include groups in the context of intergroup relationships.
94. Smith, Less Than Human, 219-21, on 'harm' and relative moral standing.
95. For an example of a specific reading of the historical context in the creation of a genocidally dehumanizing narrative, Rowan Savage, "'Disease incarnate: biopolitical discourse and genocidal dehumanisation in the age of modernity', Journal of Historical Sociology, vol. 20, no. 3, 2007, 404-40.
96. Cohen, States of Denial, 82.
97. Ben Kiernan, Twentieth-century genocides: underlying ideological themes from Armenia to East Timor', in Gellately and Kiernan, The Specter of Genocide, 29-52(33).
98. Cohen calls this an 'account' (States of Denial, 58-64). This concept could be seen as existing within Haas's 'ethical system' ('The morality of Auschwitz', 384). For the 'vocabulary' Alvarez, Adjusting to genocide', 151, 170.
99. Given the complexity of genocide, monocausal explanations are universally insufficient. Bar-Tal and Teichman, Stereotypes and Prejudice in Conflict, 55.
100. Bar-Tal, Group Beliefs, 96
101. Waller, Becoming Evil, 138-9.
102. Bar-Tal, Causes and consequences of delegitimization', 74, 76.
103. Herbert C. Kelman and V. Lee Hamilton, 'The My Lai massacre: crimes of obedience and sanctioned massacres', in M. David Ermann and Richard J. Lundman (eds), Corporate and Governmental Deviance: Problems of Organizational Behaviour in Contemporary Society, 5th edn (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press 1996), 195-221(204-5). For Kelman's early discussion of dehumanization as a phenomenon in itself
104. Herbert C. Kelman, 'Violence without moral restraint: reflections on the dehumanization of victims and victimizers', Journal of Social Issues, vol. 29, no. 4, 1973, 25-61(48-52). For a problematization of Kelman's (and Haslam's) conception of dehumanization, see Smith, Less Than Human, 92-5.
105. Andreas Musolff, 'What role do metaphors play in racial prejudice? The function of antisemitic imagery in Hitler's Mein Kampf', Patterns of Prejudice, vol. 41, no. 1, 2007, 21-43(42-3).
106. Staub, The Roots of Evil, 60-1.
107. Sémelin, Toward a vocabulary of massacre and genocide', 199
108. Fein, Accounting for Genocide, 6, 8.
109. On this issue in the context of genocide and massacre, see Sémelin, Purify and Destroy, 62-3.
110. Hron, 'Gukora and itsembatsemba', 138.
111. Kelman and Hamilton, 'The My Lai massacre', 200.
112. For a discussion of dehumanization as a continuum extending to the anthropomorphization of non-human animals and inanimate objects, Virginia S. Y. Kwan and Susan T. Fiske, 'Missing links in social cognition: the continuum from nonhuman agents to dehumanized humans', Social Cognition, vol. 26, no. 2, 2008, 125-8.
113. For 'humanness' considered as a continuum, AdamWaytz, Nicholas Epley and John T. Cacioppo, 'Social cognition unbound: insights into anthropomorphism and dehumanization', Current Directions in Psychological Science, vol. 19, no. 1, 2010, 58-62(60-1).
114. Bar-Tal and Teichman note, for example: The characteristics of a stereotype's intensity and extensiveness are of great importance but have been almost completely disregarded by sociological research' (Stereotypes and Prejudice in Conflict, 52).
115. Tileagǎ, Ideologies of moral exclusion', 718
116. Billig, 'Henri Tajfel's "Cognitive aspects of prejudice" and the psychology of bigotry', 181 Opotow, 'Moral exclusion and injustice', 2. Opotow also argues for a 'spectrum of hate' in a context of moral judgement and exclusion: Susan Opotow, 'Hate, conflict, and moral exclusion', in Robert J. Sternberg (ed), The Psychology of Hate (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association 2005), 121-53(121-2, 130, 138-9). In the same volume, however, Moshman suggests that 'dehumanization is more important than hatred as a basis for genocide': David Moshman, 'Genocidal hatred: now you see it, now you don't', in Sternberg (ed.), The Psychology of Hate, 185-209(206-7).
117. Viola W. Bernard, Perry Ottenberg and Fritz Redl, 'Dehumanization', in Nevitt Sanford and Craig Comstock (eds), Sanctions for Evil: Sources of Social Destructiveness (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass 1971), 102-24(105-6).
118. Hatzfeld, Machete Season, 47-8, 221.
119. Raymond Evans The nigger shall disappear ": aborigines and Europeans in colonial Queensland', in Raymond Evans, Kay Saunders and Kathryn Cronin (eds), Exclusion Exploitation and Extermination: Race Relations in Colonial Queensland (Sydney: Australia and New Zealand Book Company 1975), 25-145(77).
120. An analysis of the different types of threat that an in-group understands to be posed against it by an out-group can be found in the intergroup threat theory presented in Walter G. Stephan and Cookie White Stephan, 'An integrated threat theory of prejudice', in Stuart Oskamp (ed.), Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum 2000), 23-46. For discussion of symbolic threat and its relationship to infrahumanization
121. Jacques-Philippe Leyens, 'Retrospective and prospective thoughts about infrahumanization', Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, vol. 12, no. 6, 2009, 807-17(811-12).
122. Raul Hilberg, The Nazi Holocaust: using bureaucracies, overcoming psychological barriers to genocide', in Ermann and Lundman (eds), Corporate and Governmental Deviance, 167-88(173-4).
123. Ifat Maoz and Clark McCauley, 'Threat, dehumanization, and support for retaliatory aggressive policies in asymmetric conflict', Journal of Conflict Resolution, vol. 52, no. 1, 2008, 93-116.
124. Albert Bandura, 'Moral disengagement', in Israel W. Charny (ed.), Encyclopedia of Genocide (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO 1999), 417.
125. Colin Tatz, 'The "doctorhood" of genocide', in Colin Tatz, Peter Arnold and Sandra Tatz (eds), Genocide Perspectives III: Essays on the Holocaust and Other Genocides (Blackheath, NSW: Brandl and Schlesinger 2006), 82-94(89).
126. Hatzfeld, Machete Season, 213.
127. In extending this model to deal with content, I divide genocidal dehumanization and its functional content into three types: animal names, disease names and reification, Rowan Savage, 'Genocidal Dehumanisation as a Discursive Strategy in the Modern Era', Ph.D. dissertation, University of Sydney, 2009. For an example of a discussion of the historical development of a particular dehumanizing trope in the context of contemporary empirical research.
128. Phillip A. Goff, Melissa J. Williams, Jennifer L. Eberhardt and Matthew C. Jackson, 'Not yet human: implicit knowledge, historical dehumanization, and contemporary consequences', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 94, no. 2, 2008, 292-306.
129. Smith, Less Than Human, 13.