Criminal justice, local democracy, and constitutional rights

Michigan Law Review

Volumn 111, Issue 6, 2013, Pages 1045-1086

  Schulhofer, Stephen J ^a  

^a NEW YORK UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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EID: 84875949404     PISSN: 00262234     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
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References (200)

1. William J. Stuntz was the Henry J. Friendly Professor of Law, Harvard Law School.
2. For an example of earlier work in that vein, see, e.g., Frank H. Easterbrook, Criminal Procedure as a Market System, 12 J. Legal Stud. 289 (1983).
3. See, e.g., William J. Stuntz, The Pathological Politics of Criminal Law, 100 Mich. L. Rev. 505 (2001).
4. Mapp v. Ohio, 367 U.S. 643 (1961).
5. Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 (1966).
6. See David Alan Sklansky, Democracy and the Police 86-93 (2008) (summarizing these arguments).
7. "[C]orrelation does not prove causation. But this coincidence seems more than coincidental. " P. 7.
8. For representative passages, passing lightly over the flaws during the 1880-1930 period, see pp. 31, 142.
9. Samuel Walker, Origins of the Contemporary Criminal Justice Paradigm: The American Bar Foundation Survey, 1953-1969, 9 Just. Q. 47, 56-58 (1992) (noting pervasive lawlessness and racism in the 1950s).
10. Robert M. Fogelson, Big-City Police 10-11 (1977).
11. The Cleveland Found., Criminal Justice in Cleveland (Roscoe Pound & Felix Frankfurter eds., 1922) [hereinafter Cleveland Report].
12. The Cleveland Found., Criminal Justice in Cleveland (Roscoe Pound & Felix Frankfurter eds., 1922) [hereinafter Cleveland Report].
13. Under the Volstead Act, Prohibition took effect in two stages-in October 1919 and February 1920. See ch. 85, 41 Stat. 305 (1919), repealed by U.S. Const. amend. XXI.
14. The Cleveland Found., Criminal Justice in Cleveland (Roscoe Pound & Felix Frankfurter eds., 1922) [hereinafter Cleveland Report].
15. The Cleveland Found., Criminal Justice in Cleveland (Roscoe Pound & Felix Frankfurter eds., 1922) [hereinafter Cleveland Report].
16. The Cleveland Found., Criminal Justice in Cleveland (Roscoe Pound & Felix Frankfurter eds., 1922) [hereinafter Cleveland Report].
17. Raymond B. Fosdick, Police Administration, in Cleveland Report, at 3.
18. Raymond B. Fosdick, Police Administration, in Cleveland Report, at 3.
19. Raymond B. Fosdick, Police Administration, in Cleveland Report, at 3.
20. Raymond B. Fosdick, Police Administration, in Cleveland Report, at 3.
21. Raymond B. Fosdick, Police Administration, in Cleveland Report, at 3.
22. Raymond B. Fosdick, Police Administration, in Cleveland Report, at 3.
23. Roscoe Pound, Criminal Justice and the American City, in Cleveland Report, at 559, 620.
24. Roscoe Pound, Criminal Justice and the American City, in Cleveland Report, at 559, 620.
25. Roscoe Pound, Criminal Justice and the American City, in Cleveland Report, at 559, 620.
26. Roscoe Pound, Criminal Justice and the American City, in Cleveland Report, at 559, 620.
27. Raymond B. Fosdick, Police Administration, in Cleveland Report, at 3.
28. Raymond B. Fosdick, Police Administration, in Cleveland Report, at 3.
29. Raymond B. Fosdick, Police Administration, in Cleveland Report, at 3.
30. Roscoe Pound, Criminal Justice and the American City, in Cleveland Report, at 559, 620.
31. Alfred Bettman & Howard F. Burns, Prosecution, in Cleveland Report, at 85, 172.
32. Roscoe Pound, Criminal Justice and the American City, in Cleveland Report, at 559, 620.
33. Roscoe Pound, Criminal Justice and the American City, in Cleveland Report, at 559, 620.
34. Roscoe Pound, Criminal Justice and the American City, in Cleveland Report, at 559, 620.
35. Samuel Walker, Origins of the Contemporary Criminal Justice Paradigm: The American Bar Foundation Survey, 1953-1969, 9 Just. Q. 47, 56-58 (1992) (noting pervasive lawlessness and racism in the 1950s).
36. Samuel Walker, Origins of the Contemporary Criminal Justice Paradigm: The American Bar Foundation Survey, 1953-1969, 9 Just. Q. 47, 56-58 (1992) (noting pervasive lawlessness and racism in the 1950s).
37. Roscoe Pound, Criminal Justice and the American City, in Cleveland Report, at 559, 620.
38. Samuel Walker, Origins of the Contemporary Criminal Justice Paradigm: The American Bar Foundation Survey, 1953-1969, 9 Just. Q. 47, 56-58 (1992) (noting pervasive lawlessness and racism in the 1950s).
39. Alfred Bettman & Howard F. Burns, Prosecution, in Cleveland Report, at 85, 172.
40. Alfred Bettman & Howard F. Burns, Prosecution, in Cleveland Report, at 85, 172.
41. Roscoe Pound, Criminal Justice and the American City, in Cleveland Report, at 559, 620.
42. Alfred Bettman & Howard F. Burns, Prosecution, in Cleveland Report, at 85, 172.
43. The Cleveland Found., Criminal Justice in Cleveland (Roscoe Pound & Felix Frankfurter eds., 1922) [hereinafter Cleveland Report].
44. The Cleveland Found., Criminal Justice in Cleveland (Roscoe Pound & Felix Frankfurter eds., 1922) [hereinafter Cleveland Report].
45. The Cleveland Found., Criminal Justice in Cleveland (Roscoe Pound & Felix Frankfurter eds., 1922) [hereinafter Cleveland Report].
46. The Cleveland Found., Criminal Justice in Cleveland (Roscoe Pound & Felix Frankfurter eds., 1922) [hereinafter Cleveland Report].
47. The Cleveland Found., Criminal Justice in Cleveland (Roscoe Pound & Felix Frankfurter eds., 1922) [hereinafter Cleveland Report].
48. The Cleveland Found., Criminal Justice in Cleveland (Roscoe Pound & Felix Frankfurter eds., 1922) [hereinafter Cleveland Report].
49. The Cleveland Found., Criminal Justice in Cleveland (Roscoe Pound & Felix Frankfurter eds., 1922) [hereinafter Cleveland Report].
50. The Cleveland Found., Criminal Justice in Cleveland (Roscoe Pound & Felix Frankfurter eds., 1922) [hereinafter Cleveland Report].
51. The Cleveland Found., Criminal Justice in Cleveland (Roscoe Pound & Felix Frankfurter eds., 1922) [hereinafter Cleveland Report].
52. The Cleveland Found., Criminal Justice in Cleveland (Roscoe Pound & Felix Frankfurter eds., 1922) [hereinafter Cleveland Report].
53. The Cleveland Found., Criminal Justice in Cleveland (Roscoe Pound & Felix Frankfurter eds., 1922) [hereinafter Cleveland Report].
54. The Cleveland Found., Criminal Justice in Cleveland (Roscoe Pound & Felix Frankfurter eds., 1922) [hereinafter Cleveland Report].
55. The Cleveland Found., Criminal Justice in Cleveland (Roscoe Pound & Felix Frankfurter eds., 1922) [hereinafter Cleveland Report].
56. The Cleveland Found., Criminal Justice in Cleveland (Roscoe Pound & Felix Frankfurter eds., 1922) [hereinafter Cleveland Report].
57. The Cleveland Found., Criminal Justice in Cleveland (Roscoe Pound & Felix Frankfurter eds., 1922) [hereinafter Cleveland Report].
58. The Cleveland Found., Criminal Justice in Cleveland (Roscoe Pound & Felix Frankfurter eds., 1922) [hereinafter Cleveland Report].
59. Alfred Bettman & Howard F. Burns, Prosecution, in Cleveland Report, at 85, 172.
60. Alfred Bettman & Howard F. Burns, Prosecution, in Cleveland Report, at 85, 172.
61. Alfred Bettman & Howard F. Burns, Prosecution, in Cleveland Report, at 85, 172.
62. Alfred Bettman & Howard F. Burns, Prosecution, in Cleveland Report, at 85, 172.
63. Alfred Bettman & Howard F. Burns, Prosecution, in Cleveland Report, at 85, 172.
64. Alfred Bettman & Howard F. Burns, Prosecution, in Cleveland Report, at 85, 172.
65. Alfred Bettman & Howard F. Burns, Prosecution, in Cleveland Report, at 85, 172.
66. Alfred Bettman & Howard F. Burns, Prosecution, in Cleveland Report, at 85, 172.
67. Alfred Bettman & Howard F. Burns, Prosecution, in Cleveland Report, at 85, 172.
68. Alfred Bettman & Howard F. Burns, Prosecution, in Cleveland Report, at 85, 172.
69. See David Alan Sklansky, Democracy and the Police 86-93 (2008) (summarizing these arguments).
70. See David Alan Sklansky, Democracy and the Police 86-93 (2008) (summarizing these arguments).
71. William H. Parker, The Police Challenge in Our Great Cities, Annals Am. Acad. Pol. & Soc. Sci., Jan. 1954, at 5, 6.
72. William H. Parker, The Police Challenge in Our Great Cities, Annals Am. Acad. Pol. & Soc. Sci., Jan. 1954, at 5, 6.
73. William H. Parker, The Police Challenge in Our Great Cities, Annals Am. Acad. Pol. & Soc. Sci., Jan. 1954, at 5, 6.
74. William H. Parker, The Police Challenge in Our Great Cities, Annals Am. Acad. Pol. & Soc. Sci., Jan. 1954, at 5, 6.
75. Samuel Walker, Origins of the Contemporary Criminal Justice Paradigm: The American Bar Foundation Survey, 1953-1969, 9 Just. Q. 47, 56-58 (1992) (noting pervasive lawlessness and racism in the 1950s).
76. Samuel Walker, Origins of the Contemporary Criminal Justice Paradigm: The American Bar Foundation Survey, 1953-1969, 9 Just. Q. 47, 56-58 (1992) (noting pervasive lawlessness and racism in the 1950s).
77. Samuel Walker, Origins of the Contemporary Criminal Justice Paradigm: The American Bar Foundation Survey, 1953-1969, 9 Just. Q. 47, 56-58 (1992) (noting pervasive lawlessness and racism in the 1950s).
78. Lawrence W. Sherman, The Sociology and Social Reform of the American Police: 1950-1973, 2 J. Police Sci. & Admin. 255, 256 (1974).
79. Lawrence W. Sherman, The Sociology and Social Reform of the American Police: 1950-1973, 2 J. Police Sci. & Admin. 255, 256 (1974).
80. Lawrence W. Sherman, The Sociology and Social Reform of the American Police: 1950-1973, 2 J. Police Sci. & Admin. 255, 256 (1974).
81. Lawrence W. Sherman, The Sociology and Social Reform of the American Police: 1950-1973, 2 J. Police Sci. & Admin. 255, 256 (1974).
82. Lawrence W. Sherman, The Sociology and Social Reform of the American Police: 1950-1973, 2 J. Police Sci. & Admin. 255, 256 (1974).
83. The President's Comm'n. on Law Enforcement and Admin. of Justice, Task Force Report: The Police 11 tbl.6 (1967) [hereinafter President's Comm'n Task Force Report].
84. Lawrence W. Sherman, The Sociology and Social Reform of the American Police: 1950-1973, 2 J. Police Sci. & Admin. 255, 256 (1974).
85. Lawrence W. Sherman, The Sociology and Social Reform of the American Police: 1950-1973, 2 J. Police Sci. & Admin. 255, 256 (1974).
86. Samuel Walker, Origins of the Contemporary Criminal Justice Paradigm: The American Bar Foundation Survey, 1953-1969, 9 Just. Q. 47, 56-58 (1992) (noting pervasive lawlessness and racism in the 1950s).
87. For the classic exposition of the "scientific management" theory, see Frederick Winslow Taylor, Scientific Management passim (Routledge 2003) (1947). For a discussion of Taylor's influence on thinking about police administration during this period.
88. Samuel Walker, Origins of the Contemporary Criminal Justice Paradigm: The American Bar Foundation Survey, 1953-1969, 9 Just. Q. 47, 56-58 (1992) (noting pervasive lawlessness and racism in the 1950s).
89. Raymond B. Fosdick, Police Administration, in Cleveland Report, at 3.
90. Raymond B. Fosdick, Police Administration, in Cleveland Report, at 3.
91. William H. Parker, The Police Challenge in Our Great Cities, Annals Am. Acad. Pol. & Soc. Sci., Jan. 1954, at 5, 6.
92. William H. Parker, The Police Challenge in Our Great Cities, Annals Am. Acad. Pol. & Soc. Sci., Jan. 1954, at 5, 6.
93. Alfred Bettman & Howard F. Burns, Prosecution, in Cleveland Report, at 85, 172.
94. Raymond B. Fosdick, Police Administration, in Cleveland Report, at 3.
95. The Cleveland Found., Criminal Justice in Cleveland (Roscoe Pound & Felix Frankfurter eds., 1922) [hereinafter Cleveland Report].
96. The Cleveland Found., Criminal Justice in Cleveland (Roscoe Pound & Felix Frankfurter eds., 1922) [hereinafter Cleveland Report].
97. The Cleveland Found., Criminal Justice in Cleveland (Roscoe Pound & Felix Frankfurter eds., 1922) [hereinafter Cleveland Report].
98. P. 260 ("The most important change may have come in... the law of mens rea.... Traditionally, that body of law required proof that the defendant acted with a state of mind that was worthy of moral blame.... But for the most part, [that] concept of wrongful intent... has gone by the boards. ").
99. See pp. 257-65.
100. See Stephen J. Schulhofer, The Future of the Adversary System, 3 Just. Q. 83, 83-84 (1986) (arguing that technological advances that increase the risk of "individual or social injury" necessitate regulation).
101. To be sure, regulatory prohibitions need not be enforced by the criminal law, and one can argue that penal sanctions normally should be reserved for conduct that is mala in se. But this does not appear to be the objection asserted in The Collapse, and it raises many broader complications. Suffice it to say that there appears to be no moral reason why criminal sanctions should not attach to the knowing violation of mala prohibita rules.
102. Model Penal Code § 2.05 cmt. 1 (1985).
103. Model Penal Code § 2.05 cmt. 1 (1985).
104. Model Penal Code § 2.05 cmt. 1 (1985).
105. See, e.g., United States v. Dotterweich, 320 U.S. 277 (1943).
106. E.g., United States v. X-Citement Video, Inc., 513 U.S. 64 (1994).
107. If anything, the law has broadened the avenues for mitigation and acquittal through the more flexible treatment of battered spouse syndrome ("BSS") that emerged in the early 1980s, see, e.g., State v. Kelly, 478 A.2d 364 (N.J. 1984), and the now-prevalent legislative mandate to admit BSS testimony as evidence of self-defense.
108. Sanford H. Kadish et al., Criminal Law and its Processes 844 (9th ed. 2012).
109. The President's Comm'n. on Law Enforcement and Admin. of Justice, Task Force Report: The Police 11 tbl.6 (1967) [hereinafter President's Comm'n Task Force Report].
110. See, e.g., Sanford H. Kadish, The Crisis of Overcriminalization, 374 Annals Am. Acad. Pol. & Soc. Sci. 157 (1967).
111. Louis B. Schwartz, Morals Offenses and the Model Penal Code, 63 Colum. L. Rev. 669, 673-74 (1963).
112. Pp. 32, 326 n.56 (citing Lee Silverstein, Defense of the Poor in Criminal Cases in American State Courts 93 (1965).
113. Pp. 32, 326 n.56 (citing Lee Silverstein, Defense of the Poor in Criminal Cases in American State Courts 93 (1965).
114. See Lawrence M. Friedman, A History of American Law 12 (1973) (stating in prologue that "this book is a social history of American law").
115. See Raymond Moley, The Vanishing Jury, 2 S. Cal. L. Rev. 97, 105 (1928).
116. See Raymond Moley, The Vanishing Jury, 2 S. Cal. L. Rev. 97, 105 (1928).
117. Donald J. Newman, Conviction: The Determination of Guilt or Innocence Without Trial 8 (Frank J. Remington ed., 1966) (reporting American Bar Foundation field surveys conducted 1956-1957).
118. The President's Comm'n. on Law Enforcement and Admin. of Justice, Task Force Report: The Police 11 tbl.6 (1967) [hereinafter President's Comm'n Task Force Report].
119. See George Fisher, Plea Bargaining's Triumph 8 (2003) ("[P]lea bargaining in New York [State] began its long rise in the first half of the nineteenth century and... reached near-modern proportions by [the nineteenth] century's end).
120. See George Fisher, Plea Bargaining's Triumph 8 (2003) ("[P]lea bargaining in New York [State] began its long rise in the first half of the nineteenth century and... reached near-modern proportions by [the nineteenth] century's end).
121. See George Fisher, Plea Bargaining's Triumph 8 (2003) ("[P]lea bargaining in New York [State] began its long rise in the first half of the nineteenth century and... reached near-modern proportions by [the nineteenth] century's end).
122. That once-common claim is now discredited. See, e.g., Stephen J. Schulhofer, Miranda's Practical Effect: Substantial Benefits and Vanishingly Small Social Costs, 90 Nw. U. L. Rev. 500 (1996).
123. See Tom R. Tyler, Why People Obey the Law 96-97, 129 (1990) (judgments about procedural justice (and hence legitimacy) depend on police impartiality and whether an officer considers the citizen's views before acting).
124. Stephen J. Schulhofer et al., American Policing at a Crossroads: Unsustainable Policies and the Procedural Justice Alternative, 101 J. Crim. L. & Criminology 335, 346 (2011) (perceptions of procedural justice are shaped by whether police are consistent and courteous, and whether they give people they encounter an opportunity to be heard)
125. Jason Sunshine & Tom R. Tyler, The Role of Procedural Justice and Legitimacy in Shaping Public Support for Policing, 37 Law & Soc'y Rev. 513, 519, 542, 546-47 (2003) (assessing judgments of procedural justice based on whether police treat people fairly, equally, and with dignity).
126. Stephen J. Schulhofer et al., American Policing at a Crossroads: Unsustainable Policies and the Procedural Justice Alternative, 101 J. Crim. L. & Criminology 335, 346 (2011) (perceptions of procedural justice are shaped by whether police are consistent and courteous, and whether they give people they encounter an opportunity to be heard)
127. Stephen J. Schulhofer et al., American Policing at a Crossroads: Unsustainable Policies and the Procedural Justice Alternative, 101 J. Crim. L. & Criminology 335, 346 (2011) (perceptions of procedural justice are shaped by whether police are consistent and courteous, and whether they give people they encounter an opportunity to be heard)
128. Stephen J. Schulhofer et al., American Policing at a Crossroads: Unsustainable Policies and the Procedural Justice Alternative, 101 J. Crim. L. & Criminology 335, 346 (2011) (perceptions of procedural justice are shaped by whether police are consistent and courteous, and whether they give people they encounter an opportunity to be heard)
129. Stephen J. Schulhofer et al., American Policing at a Crossroads: Unsustainable Policies and the Procedural Justice Alternative, 101 J. Crim. L. & Criminology 335, 346 (2011) (perceptions of procedural justice are shaped by whether police are consistent and courteous, and whether they give people they encounter an opportunity to be heard)
130. Campbell Gibson & Kay Jung, Historical Census Statistics on Population Totals by Race, 1790 to 1990, and by Hispanic Origin, 1970 to 1990, for Large Cities and Other Urban Places in the United States 2 tbl.11 (U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division, Working Paper No. 76, 2005).
131. Campbell Gibson & Kay Jung, Historical Census Statistics on Population Totals by Race, 1790 to 1990, and by Hispanic Origin, 1970 to 1990, for Large Cities and Other Urban Places in the United States 2 tbl.11 (U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division, Working Paper No. 76, 2005).
132. In its discussion of Southern justice, The Collapse provides compelling illustrations of this point. E.g., pp. 145-47.
133. The Collapse mentions that the Baby Boom of the late 1940s contributed to the crime surge of the 1960s but does not pursue this point or consider it as a possible reason for the contrasting patterns of crime during the two migrations. P. 20.
134. James Q. Wilson, Thinking About Crime 20 (rev. ed. 1983).
135. Lawrence W. Sherman, The Sociology and Social Reform of the American Police: 1950-1973, 2 J. Police Sci. & Admin. 255, 256 (1974).
136. James Q. Wilson, Thinking About Crime 20 (rev. ed. 1983).
137. James Q. Wilson, Thinking About Crime 20 (rev. ed. 1983).
138. James Q. Wilson, Thinking About Crime 20 (rev. ed. 1983).
139. James Q. Wilson, Thinking About Crime 20 (rev. ed. 1983).
140. William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged 41 (2d ed. 2012).
141. William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged 41 (2d ed. 2012).
142. William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged 41 (2d ed. 2012).
143. U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States 77-78 tbl. HS-41 (2003), available at http://www.census.gov/statab/hist/HS-41.pdf.
144. U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States 77-78 tbl. HS-41 (2003), available at http://www.census.gov/statab/hist/HS-41.pdf.
145. U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States 77-78 tbl. HS-41 (2003), available at http://www.census.gov/statab/hist/HS-41.pdf.
146. William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged 41 (2d ed. 2012).
147. William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged 41 (2d ed. 2012).
148. William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged 41 (2d ed. 2012).
149. William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged 41 (2d ed. 2012).
150. William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged 41 (2d ed. 2012).
151. William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged 41 (2d ed. 2012).
152. William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged 41 (2d ed. 2012).
153. William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged 41 (2d ed. 2012).
154. David Garland, The Culture of Control: Crime and Social Order in Contemporary Society 90 (2001). In a later chapter, The Collapse mentions briefly that "[l]arge social, political, and economic forces lay behind the riots and rising crime that were concentrated in urban black neighborhoods [after the 1950s]. " P. 241. But the book does not bring this point to bear on its discussion of possible reasons for contrasting experiences of crime during the two migrations.
155. David Garland, The Culture of Control: Crime and Social Order in Contemporary Society 90 (2001). In a later chapter, The Collapse mentions briefly that "[l]arge social, political, and economic forces lay behind the riots and rising crime that were concentrated in urban black neighborhoods [after the 1950s]. " P. 241. But the book does not bring this point to bear on its discussion of possible reasons for contrasting experiences of crime during the two migrations.
156. The Collapse argues that subjecting lab technicians to cross-examination makes the use of forensic evidence more costly and, thus, inevitably means less reliance on such evidence, despite its "increasing... accuracy. " P. 227. More explanation is needed to justify the implicit assumptions here-that inability to cross-examine technicians will not affect the accuracy of their reports, and that states, in order to preserve their ability to introduce such evidence, will not allocate additional funds. On counsel, The Collapse argues that although "[t]rials with effective defense counsel are more likely to [be] accurate, " p. 229, enforcement of that right does not merely identify innocent defendants but "[i]nstead... protect[s] all defendants harmed by [procedural error]. At best, appellate review of this sort gets at accuracy indirectly. Better simply to ask whether the government proved its case.... " P. 230. But asking "whether the government proved its case, " p. 230, cannot suffice when ineffective assistance leaves the appellate court with a record that inadequately presents the defendant's side of the story. Without radical change in our methods of appellate review, appellate courts cannot assess innocence directly; they can get at that issue only by assessing the integrity of the procedures followed by the trier of fact.
157. Even these decisions often serve substantive innocence because defense attorneys use them for substantive purposes. Since discovery rights are limited, motions to suppress may provide a defense attorney's only opportunity to preview the prosecutor's case and pin down witness testimony; such motions thus become a crucial predicate for preparing substantive defenses. I am grateful to Erin Murphy for calling my attention to this point.
158. Stephen J. Schulhofer et al., American Policing at a Crossroads: Unsustainable Policies and the Procedural Justice Alternative, 101 J. Crim. L. & Criminology 335, 346 (2011) (perceptions of procedural justice are shaped by whether police are consistent and courteous, and whether they give people they encounter an opportunity to be heard)
159. Gideon v. Wainwright, 372 U.S. 335 (1963).
160. Stephen J. Schulhofer et al., American Policing at a Crossroads: Unsustainable Policies and the Procedural Justice Alternative, 101 J. Crim. L. & Criminology 335, 346 (2011) (perceptions of procedural justice are shaped by whether police are consistent and courteous, and whether they give people they encounter an opportunity to be heard)
161. Stephen J. Schulhofer et al., American Policing at a Crossroads: Unsustainable Policies and the Procedural Justice Alternative, 101 J. Crim. L. & Criminology 335, 346 (2011) (perceptions of procedural justice are shaped by whether police are consistent and courteous, and whether they give people they encounter an opportunity to be heard)
162. Stephen J. Schulhofer et al., American Policing at a Crossroads: Unsustainable Policies and the Procedural Justice Alternative, 101 J. Crim. L. & Criminology 335, 346 (2011) (perceptions of procedural justice are shaped by whether police are consistent and courteous, and whether they give people they encounter an opportunity to be heard)
163. Stephen J. Schulhofer et al., American Policing at a Crossroads: Unsustainable Policies and the Procedural Justice Alternative, 101 J. Crim. L. & Criminology 335, 346 (2011) (perceptions of procedural justice are shaped by whether police are consistent and courteous, and whether they give people they encounter an opportunity to be heard)
164. The Collapse insists that procedural rights "have led to massive amounts of litigation. " P. 226.
165. Furman v. Georgia, 408 U.S. 238 (1972) (per curiam).
166. Stephen J. Schulhofer et al., American Policing at a Crossroads: Unsustainable Policies and the Procedural Justice Alternative, 101 J. Crim. L. & Criminology 335, 346 (2011) (perceptions of procedural justice are shaped by whether police are consistent and courteous, and whether they give people they encounter an opportunity to be heard)
167. Stephen J. Schulhofer et al., American Policing at a Crossroads: Unsustainable Policies and the Procedural Justice Alternative, 101 J. Crim. L. & Criminology 335, 346 (2011) (perceptions of procedural justice are shaped by whether police are consistent and courteous, and whether they give people they encounter an opportunity to be heard)
168. Narcotic Control Act of 1956, Pub. L. 84-728, 70 Stat. 567 (1956) (repealed 1970); U.S. Sentencing Comm'n, Special Report to Congress: Mandatory Minimum Penalties in the Federal Criminal Justice System 5-6 (1991) (mandatory minimums first imposed in Narcotic Control Act of 1956).
169. The Court imposed an exclusionary rule in federal prosecutions in 1914, Weeks v. United States, 232 U.S. 383 (1914), but that rule remained inapplicable to the states throughout the 1950s.
170. The Court imposed an exclusionary rule in federal prosecutions in 1914, Weeks v. United States, 232 U.S. 383 (1914), but that rule remained inapplicable to the states throughout the 1950s.
171. Stephen J. Schulhofer et al., American Policing at a Crossroads: Unsustainable Policies and the Procedural Justice Alternative, 101 J. Crim. L. & Criminology 335, 346 (2011) (perceptions of procedural justice are shaped by whether police are consistent and courteous, and whether they give people they encounter an opportunity to be heard)
172. 18 U.S.C. § 3501 (2006), purporting to overrule Miranda, was never invoked by federal prosecutors, and when raised by a district judge sua sponte, was held unconstitutional in Dickerson v. United States, 530 U.S. 428, 431-32 (2000).
173. See Albert W. Alschuler, The Changing Purposes of Criminal Punishment: A Retrospective on the Past Century and Some Thoughts About the Next, 70 U. Chi. L. Rev. 1, 9 (2003) (noting the public's disillusionment with rehabilitation).
174. Ted Chiricos, The Media, Moral Panics and the Politics of Crime Control, in The Criminal Justice System: Politics and Policies 57-58 (George F. Cole & Mark G. Gertz eds., 7th ed. 1998) (arguing that the expansion of punitive measures was a response to "moral panic" resulting from media coverage of crack cocaine usage and violent crimes)
175. Michael Vitiello, Three Strikes: Can We Return to Rationality?, 87 J. Crim. L. & Criminology 395 (1997) (discussing how highly publicized crimes by repeat offenders led to the passage of punitive statutes such as Three Strikes laws).
176. David J. Feldman, England and Wales, in Criminal Procedure: A Worldwide Study 149, 167, 170-72 (Craig M. Bradley ed., 2d ed. 2007). Britain likewise had and has no rule mandating suppression of illegally seized evidence.
177. David Garland, The Culture of Control: Crime and Social Order in Contemporary Society 90 (2001). In a later chapter, The Collapse mentions briefly that "[l]arge social, political, and economic forces lay behind the riots and rising crime that were concentrated in urban black neighborhoods [after the 1950s]. " P. 241. But the book does not bring this point to bear on its discussion of possible reasons for contrasting experiences of crime during the two migrations.
178. David Garland, The Culture of Control: Crime and Social Order in Contemporary Society 90 (2001). In a later chapter, The Collapse mentions briefly that "[l]arge social, political, and economic forces lay behind the riots and rising crime that were concentrated in urban black neighborhoods [after the 1950s]. " P. 241. But the book does not bring this point to bear on its discussion of possible reasons for contrasting experiences of crime during the two migrations.
179. See, e.g., Gregg v. Georgia, 428 U.S. 153, 169, 195 (1976) (plurality opinion) (permitting states to reinstate the death penalty, provided they institute procedures to guide jury sentencing discretion).
180. See, e.g., Gregg v. Georgia, 428 U.S. 153, 169, 195 (1976) (plurality opinion) (permitting states to reinstate the death penalty, provided they institute procedures to guide jury sentencing discretion).
181. See, e.g., Gregg v. Georgia, 428 U.S. 153, 169, 195 (1976) (plurality opinion) (permitting states to reinstate the death penalty, provided they institute procedures to guide jury sentencing discretion).
182. See, e.g., Gregg v. Georgia, 428 U.S. 153, 169, 195 (1976) (plurality opinion) (permitting states to reinstate the death penalty, provided they institute procedures to guide jury sentencing discretion).
183. See, e.g., Gregg v. Georgia, 428 U.S. 153, 169, 195 (1976) (plurality opinion) (permitting states to reinstate the death penalty, provided they institute procedures to guide jury sentencing discretion).
184. See, e.g., chapters 5-6.
185. See David Alan Sklansky, Democracy and the Police 86-93 (2008) (summarizing these arguments).
186. See Amy O'Leary, What is Middle Class in Manhattan?, N.Y. Times, Jan. 20, 2013, at RE1 ("Household incomes in Manhattan are about as evenly distributed as they are in Bolivia or Sierra Leone-the wealthiest fifth of Manhattanites make 40 times more than the lowest fifth.... ").
187. If a city runs short of money-in an economic downturn, for example-will it have to lay off police officers so that it can afford to keep its serious offenders behind bars, or will it have to impose shorter sentences on its offenders, while serious offenders from affluent areas face more severe punishment? Either way, the adverse public-safety consequences for cashstrapped cities could well undermine property values, put even greater pressure on revenues, and force an additional round of cuts to policing or sentencing, in a potentially relentless downward spiral. But if a city cannot be put to these choices, the cost-sharing arrangement becomes unacceptable. Conversely, when a city wants more policing and is willing to pay its 50 percent share, the Stuntz proposal would obligate federal and state governments to fund the rest. Affluent cities would be the first to take advantage of this opportunity, draining the available funds. And whether they do so or not, other levels of government will justifiably demand a say in how the funds they provide to localities are spent, a result exactly opposite from the decentralization that the proposal was supposed to further. To be sure, cities often need support from levels of government that have a stronger tax base, and Stuntz's analysis of this need is insightful. But the project of strengthening local control is easier said than done because it is hard to override the power of the purse-that is, to guarantee funding from the center while decentralizing operational decisions that have fiscal implications.
188. Stephen J. Schulhofer et al., American Policing at a Crossroads: Unsustainable Policies and the Procedural Justice Alternative, 101 J. Crim. L. & Criminology 335, 346 (2011) (perceptions of procedural justice are shaped by whether police are consistent and courteous, and whether they give people they encounter an opportunity to be heard)
189. See David Alan Sklansky, Democracy and the Police 86-93 (2008) (summarizing these arguments).
190. William H. Parker, The Police Challenge in Our Great Cities, Annals Am. Acad. Pol. & Soc. Sci., Jan. 1954, at 5, 6.
191. U.S. Const. amend. V.
192. See Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436, 460-67 (1966).
193. Minnesota v. Murphy, 465 U.S. 420, 433 (1984) (White, J.).
194. Minnesota v. Murphy, 465 U.S. 420, 433 (1984) (White, J.).
195. Mapp v. Ohio, 367 U.S. 643, 645-46 (1961).
196. Mapp v. Ohio, 367 U.S. 643, 645-46 (1961).
197. Mapp v. Ohio, 367 U.S. 643, 645-46 (1961).
198. See David Alan Sklansky, Democracy and the Police 86-93 (2008) (summarizing these arguments).
199. McNabb v. United States, 318 U.S. 332, 347 (1943).
200. Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, arts. 5, 6, 19, Nov. 4, 1950, 213 U.N.T.S. 221, 226, 228, 234.