Teaching natural history at the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology

British Journal for the History of Science

Volumn 46, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 97-121

  Sunderland, Mary E ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 84875539105     PISSN: 00070874     EISSN: 1474001X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0007087411000872     Document Type: Review

References (202)

1. For more on the history of the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology see Elihu M. Gerson, 'The American system of research: evolutionary biology, 1890-1950', PhD dissertation, University of Chicago, 1998;
2. Elihu M. Gerson and James R. Griesemer, 'Collaboration in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology', Journal of the History of Biology (1993) 26, pp. 185-203;
3. James R. Griesemer, 'Modeling in the museum: on the role of remnant models in the work of Joseph Grinnell', Biology and Philosophy (1990) 5, pp. 3-36;
4. idem, 'Material models in biology', in Arthur Fine, Micky Forbes and Linda Wessels (eds.), PSA 1990, v.2, East Lansing: Philosophy of Science Association, 1991, pp. 79-93;
5. idem, 'Niche: historical perspectives', in Evelyn Fox Keller and Elisabeth A. Lloyd (eds.), Key Words in Evolutionary Biology, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992, pp. 231-240;
6. Javier A. Rodriguez-Robles, David A. Good and David B. Wake, Brief History of Herpetology in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California Berkeley, with a List of Type Specimens of Recent Amphibians and Reptiles, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003;
7. Barbara Stein, On Her Own Terms: Annie Montague Alexander and the Rise of Science in the American West, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001;
8. Robert Kohler, All Creatures: Naturalists, Collectors, and Biodiversity, 1850-1950, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006.
9. On the problematic nature of commemorative practices see Pnina Abir-Am, 'Commemorative practices in science: historical perspectives on the politics of collective memory', Osiris (1999) 7, pp. 1-33.
10. This paper recognizes the biased perspective of commemorative agendas, but does not explore the ramifications of the MVZ's centennial celebrations in depth.
11. Griesemer, 'Niche: historical perspectives', op. cit. (1);
12. Joseph Grinnell and H. Swarth, 'An account of the birds and mammals of the San Jacinto area of Southern California with remarks upon the behavior of geographic races on the margins of their habitats', University of California Publications in Zoology (1913) 10, pp. 197-406.
13. Joel B. Hagen, An Entangled Bank: The Origins of Ecosystem Ecology, New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1992;
14. Sharon Kingsland, Modeling Nature: Episodes in the History of Population Ecology, Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1995;
15. Ernst Mayr, 'Prologue: some thoughts on the history of the Evolutionary Synthesis', in Ernst Mayr and William B. Provine, The Evolutionary Synthesis: Perspectives on the Unification of Biology, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, fourth printing, 1998 (first published 1980), pp. 1-50.
16. Grinnell's early thinking about populations and isolation is evident in Grinnell, 'The origin and distribution of the chestnut-backed chickadee', The Auk (1904) 21, pp. 364-382.
17. Grinnell's incorporation of genetics with questions of speciation is evident in his handout on 'Speciation'-discussed later in the paper. Joseph Grinnell, 8 April 1937, 'Speciation: Things entering the problem of species-making in vertebrate animals', Joseph and Hilda Wood Grinnell Papers, Bancroft Library, Berkeley (subsequently JHGP), Box 9, Folder 8.
18. E.R. Hall, 'Joseph Grinnell (1877 to 1939)', Journal of Mammalogy (1939) 20, pp. 400-417, 412.
19. Carla Cicero, staff curator of birds at the MVZ, first learned about the MVZ when she took the NHV course in 1981. Cicero completed her PhD at the MVZ in 1993 and was then hired as the staff curator of genetic resources (1994).
20. Monica Albe, a senior museum specialist at the MVZ, also learned about the MVZ through the NHV in 2000. Hired as a curatorial assistant in 2001, Albe transitioned into her current position in 2004.
21. Garland E. Allen, Life Science in the Twentieth Century, London: Wiley, 1975;
22. Ronald Rainger, Keith Benson and Jane Maienschein (eds.), The American Development of Biology, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988;
23. and Jane Maienschein, Transforming Traditions in American Biology, 1880-1915, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.
24. Toby A. Appel, 'Organizing biology: the American Society of Naturalists and its "Affiliated Societies," 1883-1923', in Rainger, Benson and Maienschein, op. cit. (7), pp. 87-120;
25. Keith Benson, 'From museum research to laboratory research: the transformation of natural history into academic biology', in Rainger, Benson and Maienschein, op. cit. (7), pp. 49-86;
26. and P. Henson, 'The Comstock research school in evolutionary entomology', Osiris (1993) 8, pp. 158-177.
27. Sally Kohlstedt, 'Museums on campus: a tradition of inquiry and teaching', in Rainger, Benson and Maienschein, op. cit. (7), pp. 15-48.
28. Mary P. Winsor, Reading the Shape of Nature: Comparative Zoology at the Agassiz Museum, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991.
29. Although there are additional university-based natural history museums that have retained active research programmes, such as Harvard's Museum of Comparative Zoology, the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology stands out in the sense that its current research programme is the realization of its long-standing research goal to monitor faunal change over time in California. For more on the Museum of Comparative Zoology see Winsor, op. cit. (10).
30. Diffusion of the Grinnellian approach is worth noting because his influence is often acknowledged, especially in the mammalogy and ornithology communities; see Ned K. Johnson, 'Ornithology at the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley', in W.E. Davis Jr and J.A. Jackson (eds.), Memoirs of the Nuttall Ornithological Club, Cambridge, MA: Nuttall Ornithological Club, 1995, pp. 183-221;
31. Frank Pitelka, 'Academic family tree for Loye and Alden Miller', The Condor (1993), pp. 1065-1067;
32. J.O. Whitaker, 'Academic propinquity: III. The Joseph Grinnell/E.R. Hall group (Berkeley and Kansas)', in Elmer C. Birney and Jerry R. Choate (eds.), Seventy-Five Years of Mammalogy, 1919-1994, Provo: American Society of Mammalogists, 1994, pp. 129-134;
33. J. Knox Jones Jr, 'Genealogy of twentieth-century systematic mammalogists in North America: the descendants of Joseph Grinnell', in Michael A. Mares and David J. Schmidly (eds.), Latin American Mammalogy: History, Biodiversity, and Conservation, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991, pp. 48-56.
34. After Grinnell served as president of the American Society of Mammalogists (1937-1938), many of his students, grand-students, and great-grand-students followed suit, including Walter P. Taylor (1940-1942), E. Raymond Hall (1944-1946), Tracy Storer (1949-1951),
35. William H. Burt (1953-1955), William B. Davis (1955-1958).
36. Robert T. Orr (1958-1960), Stephen D. Durrant (1960-1962), Emmet T. Hooper (1962-1964), Donald F. Hoffmeister (1964-1966);
37. Randolph L. Peterson (1966-1968), Richard G. Van Gelder (1968-1970), J. Knox Jones Jr (1972-1974);
38. Sydney Anderson (1974-1976), William Z. Lidicker (1976-1978), Robert S. Hoffmann (1978-1980), James S. Findley (1980-1982), J. Mary Taylor (1982-1984, who graduated from the MVZ under Alden Miller and became the first female president of the ASM), Hugh Genoways (1984-1986), Don E. Wilson (1986-1988), Elmer C. Birney (1988-1990), James H. Brown (1990-1992), Robert J. Baker (1994-1996), O. James Reichman (1998-2000), Thomas H. Kunz (2002-2004), Guy N. Cameron (2006-2008) and Michael A. Mares (2010-2012).
39. Since Grinnell 73 of the ASM presidents have had a Grinnellian lineage. Thanks to William Z. Lidicker who compiled this information and presented it in a talk titled 'Mammalogy at MVZ: a brief overview' at the MVZ Centennial Celebrations, 12 December 2008.
40. Grinnell also served as president of the American Ornithologists' Union, as did his student Alden Miller and grand-students Charles Gald Sibley (1986-1988) and Ned K. Johnson (1996-1998), among others.
41. The important relationship between teaching and research has been explored in the physical sciences and engineering; see David Kaiser (ed.), Pedagogy and the Practice of Science: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2005;
42. idem, Drawing Theories Apart: The Dispersion of Feynman Diagrams in Postwar Physics, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005;
43. Kathryn Olesko, Physics as a Calling: Discipline and Practice in the Königsberg Seminar for Physics, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991;
44. and Andrew Warwick, Masters of Theory: Cambridge and the Rise of Mathematical Physics, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004.
45. Studies of research schools have explored the role of teaching in chemistry and physiology research; see Frederic L. Holmes, 'The complementarity of teaching and research in Liebig's laboratory', Osiris (1993) 5, pp. 121-164;
46. Gerald L. Geison, Michael Foster and the Cambridge School of Physiology, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978;
47. Gerald L. Geison and Frederic L. Holmes (eds.), 'Research schools: historical appraisals', Osiris (1993) 8;
48. and Jack B. Morrell, 'The chemist breeders: the research schools of Liebig and Thomas Thomson', Ambix (1972) 19, pp. 1-46.
49. Joseph Grinnell to Benjamin Wheeler, 1 July 1910, President Correspondence 1908-1919, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, Berkeley (subsequently PC).
50. For an analysis of the Grinnell Resurvey Project see Michelle Nijhuis, 'The ghosts of Yosemite', High Country News, 17 October 2005;
51. Kenneth Brower, 'Disturbing Yosemite', California Magazine (2006) 117, pp. 14-21, 41-44;
52. Avelet Shavit and James R. Griesemer, 'There and back again, or, the problem of locality in biodiversity surveys', Philosophy of Science (2009) 76, pp. 273-294;
53. Shavit and Griesemer, 'Transforming objects into data: how minute technicalities of recording "species location" entrench a basic challenge for biodiversity', in Alfred Nordmann and Martin Carrier (eds.), Science in the Context of Application, forthcoming.
54. For published results from the Grinnell Resurvey Project see Craig Moritz et al., 'Impact of a century of climate change on small-mammal communities in Yosemite National Park, USA', Science (2008) 322, pp. 261-264.
55. Previous efforts to evaluate the success of research programmes have focused primarily on research schools, which Geison defined as 'small groups of mature scientists pursuing a reasonably coherent program of research side-by-side with advanced students in the same institutional context and engaging in direct, continuous social and intellectual interaction'.
56. Gerald Geison, 'Scientific change, emerging specialties, and research schools', History of Science (1981) 19, pp. 20-40, 23, original emphasis.
57. Henson, op. cit. (8).
58. Geison, op. cit. (13); Geison and Holmes, op. cit. (13); Morrell, op. cit. (13).
59. Gerald L. Geison, 'Research schools and new directions in the historiography of science', Osiris (1993) 8, pp. 226-238, 232;
60. Robert E. Kohler, Lords of the Fly: Drosophila Genetics and the Experimental Life, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994.
61. In contrast, the role of training in research that involves work beyond the laboratory remains largely uncharted, with the exception of David Kushner, 'Sir George Darwin and a British school of geophysics', Osiris (1993) 8, pp. 196-223;
62. Joel B. Hagen, 'Clementsian ecologists: the internal dynamics of a research school', Osiris (1993) 8, pp. 178-195;
63. Ronald Rainger, 'Adaptation and the importance of local culture: creating a research school at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography', Journal of the History of Biology (2003) 36, pp. 461-500.
64. This is confirmed by a variety of sources, including conversations with Professor Emeritus Dale McCullough, who was required to take the NHV by his PhD supervisor, Aldo Starker Leopold, and conversations with Professors Emeriti William Z. Lidicker and James L. Patton, who indicated that new graduate students in both the MVZ and the Department of Zoology were expected to participate in the NHV if they were without prior organismal training. A letter from Joseph Grinnell to Annie Alexander indicates that half of the students enrolled in the NHV were graduate students. Joseph Grinnell to Annie M. Alexander, 20 April 1929, Annie Alexander papers, 1929, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, Berkeley (subsequently AA).
65. For more on Grinnell's life see H.W. Grinnell, 'Joseph Grinnell: 1877-1939', The Condor (1940) 42, pp. 3-34;
66. Juan Ilerbaig, 'Pride in place: fieldwork, geography, and American field zoology, 1850-1920', PhD dissertation, University of Minnesota, 2002;
67. A. Miller, 'Joseph Grinnell', Systematic Zoology (1964) 13, pp. 235-242;
68. Hall, op. cit. (5).
69. Grinnell and Swarth, op. cit. (3).
70. Ilerbaig pointed out that Grinnell actually tried to use the chickadee work for his doctorate, but his major professor, Charles Gilbert, judged it to be too short and speculative (Ilerbaig, op. cit. (21), p. 253).
71. Joseph Grinnell, Joseph Grinnell's Philosophy of Nature: Selected Writings of a Western Naturalist, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1943.
72. Joseph Grinnell, 1 July 1930, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology Annual Report, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, Berkeley, Folder: Annual Reports, Miscellaneous History cabinet (Subsequently AR-MVZ).
73. Grinnell, op. cit. (21); Gerson and Griesemer, op. cit. (1), pp. 186-187; Stein, op. cit. (1), p. 75.
74. Sally G. Kohlstedt, 'Review: museums: revisiting sites in the history of the natural sciences", Journal of the History of Biology (1995) 28, pp. 151-166;
75. Stein, op. cit. (1), pp. 76-87.
76. Grinnell, op. cit. (23).
77. Joseph Grinnell to Benjamin Wheeler, op. cit. (14).
78. 'The Museum of Vertebrate Zoology at Berkeley, what we do, and why', at http://mvz.berkeley.edu/General-Information.html, accessed 9 June 2009.
79. Joseph Grinnell to Benjamin Wheeler, op. cit. (14).
80. Juan Ilerbaig, 'The view-point of a naturalist', in Joe Cain and Michael Ruse (eds.), Descended from Darwin, Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 2009, pp. 23-48.
81. The laboratory-field distinction has been a productive topic of scholarship in the history and philosophy of sciences, but it is not addressed in depth here. See Robert E. Kohler, Landscapes and Labscapes, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002;
82. and idem, op. cit. (19).
83. The naturalist-experimentalist dichotomy was introduced by Garland Allen, in Allen, op. cit. (7), and has had staying power, in part, because of the reinforcing field-laboratory distinction. Work at the MVZ challenges these distinctions. For an in depth discussion see Mary Sunderland, 'Collections-based research at the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology', forthcoming.
84. Gerson, op. cit. (1), p. 31.
85. Hugo de Vries, Die Mutationstheorie. Versuche und Beobachtungen über die Entstehung von Arten im Pflanzenreich, 2 vols., Leipzig: Veit, 1901-1903;
86. Joseph Grinnell, 7 May 1925, speech notes 'To Doctor Gilbert and Professor Price', JHGP, Box 9, Folder 5.
87. JohnE. Lesch, 'The role of isolation in evolution: George J. Romanes and John T. Gulick', Isis (1975) 66, pp. 483-503;
88. Gerson, op. cit. (1).
89. Gerson and Griesemer, op. cit. (1), pp. 193-196.
90. Joseph Grinnell to Annie M. Alexander, 14 November 1907, as cited in Stein, op. cit. (1), p. 77.
91. Stein, op. cit. (1); Ilerbaig, op. cit. (21).
92. Angela Creager and Hannah Landecker, 'Technical matters: method, knowledge and infrastructure in twentieth-century life science', Nature Methods (2009), pp. 701-705.
93. Joseph Grinnell, 'Suggestions for field notes', JHGP, Box 9, folder 8.
94. Cathryn Carson, 'Writing, writing, writing: the natural field journal as literary text', Townsend Newsletter (2007), pp. 6-8.
95. Joseph Grinnell, 'Suggestions as to collecting', revised by Alden H. Miller, 2 July 1942, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, Berkeley, Drawer-Miscellaneous History cabinet, Folder-Methods;
96. E. Raymond Hall, Collecting and Preparing Study Specimens of Vertebrates, Lawrence: University of Kansas Museum of Natural History, 1962;
97. idem, The Mammals of North America, 2nd edn, New York: Wiley, 1981;
98. Steven G. Herman, The Naturalists Field Journal, Vermillion: Buteo, 1986;
99. J.V. Remsen Jr, 'On taking field notes', American Birds (1977) 31, pp. 946-953.
100. Grinnell, op. cit. (34);
101. N. Johnson, M.J. Mahoney, J.L. Patton and R.C. Stebbins, Vertebrate Natural History Laboratory and Field Syllabus, University of California, Berkeley, 2003, p. 118.
102. Grinnell, op. cit. (42), underlining in original.
103. Herman, op. cit. (42); Johnson et al., op. cit. (43).
104. Carson, op. cit. (41);
105. J.D. Perrine and J.L. Patton, 'Letters to the future: field notes and the Grinnell resurvey project', in Michael Canfield (ed.), Field Notes on Science and Nature, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011, pp. 211-250.
106. Carson, op. cit. (41); Perrine and Patton, op. cit. (46).
107. Grinnell, op. cit. (40).
108. Grinnell, op. cit. (40), underlining in original.
109. Grinnell, op. cit. (40), underlining in original.
110. C. Hart Merriam, Life Zones and Crop Zones of the United States, US Department of Agriculture Division of Biological Survey Bulletin No. 10, 1898;
111. Joseph Grinnell and H.M. Hall, 'Life-zone indicators in California', Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences (1919) 9, pp. 37-67.
112. Grinnell and Hall, op. cit. (51).
113. Joseph Grinnell, 6 April 1937, 'Some life-zone indicators for California', JHGP, Box 9, Folder 8.
114. Grinnell, op. cit. (53).
115. Joseph Grinnell, 8 April 1937, 'Speciation: things entering the problem of species-making in vertebrate animals', JHGP, Box 9, Folder 8.
116. Joseph Grinnell, 'An account of the mammals and birds of the Lower Colorado Valley with especial reference to the distributional problems presented', University of California Publications in Zoology (1914) 12, pp. 51-294;
117. idem, 'Barriers to distribution as regards birds and mammals', American Naturalist (1914) 48, pp. 248-254;
118. Griesemer, 'Niche: historical perspectives', op. cit. (1).
119. Joseph Grinnell, 'Significance of faunal analysis for general biology', selection from 'A distributional summation of the ornithology of Lower California', University of California Publications in Zoology (1928) 32, pp. 1-300,13-18, reprinted in idem, op. cit. (23), p. 143, as cited in Griesemer, 'Modeling in the museum', op. cit. (1), p. 17.
120. See also idem, 'Niche: historical perspectives', op. cit. (1).
121. Joseph Grinnell, 9 February 1928, 'Mid-term Examination Zool. 113', JHGP, Box 9, Folder 8.
122. Grinnell, op. cit. (58).
123. Grinnell, op. cit. (40).
124. Joseph Grinnell, 7 May 1935, 'Final Examination Zoology 113', JHGP, Box 9, Folder 8.
125. Grinnell, op. cit. (24).
126. Joseph Grinnell to Benjamin Wheeler, op. cit. (14).
127. Announcement of Courses, 1910-1911, Berkeley, 1910, 130, CCC-B.
128. Joseph Grinnell to Benjamin Wheeler, op. cit. (14).
129. Joseph Grinnell to Benjamin Wheeler, 1 April 11, PC; Benjamin Wheeler to Joseph Grinnell, 10 April 1911, PC.
130. Gerson and Griesemer, op. cit. (1); Stein, op. cit. (1); Joseph Grinnell, 1 July 1926, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology Annual Report, AR-MVZ.
131. Annie M. Alexander to Joseph Grinnell, 8 April 1929, AA.
132. Joseph Grinnell to Annie M. Alexander, op. cit. (20), underlining in original.
133. Announcement of Courses, 1911-1912, Berkeley, 1911, p. 134, CCC-B.
134. Announcement of Courses, 1913-1914, Berkeley, 1913, p. 232, CCC-B.
135. Announcement of Courses, 1918-1919, Berkeley, 1919, p. 262, CCC-B.
136. Hilda Wood Grinnell, 22 August 1922, 'Mr Grinnell Zool 116', JHGP-B, Box 9, Folder 12.
137. Grinnell, op. cit. (73).
138. Although a history of American ecology is beyond the scope of this article, see Hagen, op. cit. (4);
139. Kingsland, op. cit. (4);
140. and idem, The Evolution of American Ecology 1890-2000, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005; Hunter Dupree, Science in the Federal Government: A History of Policies and Activities to 1940, Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1957.
141. Grinnell correspondence, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology correspondence files, Berkeley, CA.
142. Announcement of Courses, 1920-1921, Berkeley, 1920, 232, CCC-B.
143. Dupree, op. cit. (75); Hall, op. cit. (5).
144. California Division of Fish and Game correspondence folder, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, Berkeley.
145. Henson, op. cit. (8), tells a version of this story in her study of John Henry Comstock's schools of entomology at Cornell and Stanford, but, unlike Grinnell's programme, Comstock's school did not last long after his death in 1931. Henson attributes the fall of Comstock's research school to 'competing fields in biology'. After his retirement, many of Comstock's entomology courses were moved to the School of Agriculture, where their focus was shifted from evolution to economics.
146. After Grinnell's death in 1939, Aldo Starker Leopold, son of the famous Aldo Leopold, was hired in 1946 as the MVZ's first official 'conservationist' (General Catalogue, Fall and Spring Semesters, 1946-47, Berkeley, 1946, 429, CCC-B).
147. Under Leopold, Grinnell's Economic Vertebrate Zoology (which Grinnell changed to 'Applied Vertebrate Zoology' in 1937) became Introduction to Wildlife Conservation (1947).
148. Although conservation was recognized as an applied science with economic and political dimensions, it
149. retained a place in the increasingly molecular-oriented Zoology Department throughout most of the 1960s. In 1969, when Leopold transferred his faculty position from Zoology to the Department of Forestry and Conservation, the course moved with him, along with four other courses that had formally been in the Zoology Department and taught by MVZ faculty.
150. Although Applied Vertebrate Zoology lost its original departmental affiliation, the NHV remained a core course within the Zoology Department. Although the NHV was not officially a required course within the Zoology Department, the majority of zoology majors enrolled because the NHV simultaneously fulfilled multiple general course requirements.
151. The NHV retained high enrolment until 1998, a decade after the Zoology Department became the Department of Integrative Biology, in response to curriculum changes. The reorganization of the biological sciences at Berkeley is described in the General Catalog, 1989-90, Berkeley, 1989, p. 89, CCC-B.
152. Thanks to James L. Patton for describing the changing enrolment trends in the NHV during the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s during a conversation at the MVZ, 13 December 2009.
153. Announcement of Courses, 1920-21, Berkeley, 1920, p. 232, CCC-B.
154. Announcement of Courses, 1931-32, Berkeley, 1931, p. 299, CCC-B;
155. Announcement of Courses, 1932-33, Berkeley, 1932, p. 305, CCC-B.
156. General Catalogue, 1937-38, Berkeley, 1937, p. 400, CCC-B.
157. General Catalogue, 1948-49, Berkeley, 1948, p. 491, CCC-B.
158. Julian Huxley, The New Systematics, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1940;
159. Ernst Mayr, 'Speciation phenomena in birds', American Naturalist (1940) 74, pp. 249-278;
160. idem, Systematics and the Origin of Species, New York: Columbia University Press, 1942.
161. General Catalogue, Fall and Spring Semesters, 1961-62, Berkeley, 1961, p. 572, CCC-B.
162. Robert T. Orr, 26 December 1991, personal written recollections, OPPOH, main folder.
163. Grinnell, 1937, op. cit. (53).
164. Mayr, op. cit. (86).
165. For more on the evolutionary synthesis see Vassiliki Betty Smocovitis, Unifying Biology: The Evolutionary Synthesis and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996;
166. Ernst Mayr and William Provine (eds.), The Evolutionary Synthesis: Perspectives on the Unification of Biology, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980;
167. and more recently Joe Cain, 'Rethinking the Synthesis period in evolutionary studies', Journal of the History of Biology (2009) 42, pp. 621-648; and Ilerbaig, op. cit. (31).
168. Grinnell, op. cit. (55).
169. Grinnell, op. cit. (55).
170. Grinnell, op. cit. (55).
171. Grinnell, op. cit. (55).
172. Grinnell, op. cit. (55).
173. Grinnell, op. cit. (55).
174. Grinnell, op. cit. (55).
175. Grinnell, op. cit. (55).
176. Grinnell, op. cit. (55).
177. Ilerbaig, op. cit. (31).
178. David Wake, 8 September 1978, 'Annual Report July 1, 1977-June 30, 1978', ARF.
179. Geison, op. cit. (13), p. 237;
180. Hans A. Krebs, 'The making of a scientist', Nature (1967) 215, pp. 1441-1445.
181. Geison, op. cit. (13), p. 237.
182. Johnson, op. cit. (12), p. 8; Pitelka, op. cit. (12), p. 95; Jones, op. cit. (12).
183. Alden Holmes Miller to Robert G. Sproul, 13 December 1943, Alden H. Miller Papers, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley (subsequently AHMP-B), Carton 3, folder Correspondence Rec'd.
184. CCC-B, 1914-2005.
185. The turnover of instructors increased substantially after 2002 for a number of reasons, including Harry Greene's departure from the MVZ in 1998, James Patton's retirement in 2002, and the death of Ned Johnson in 2003.
186. Jim McGuire was hired as a new curator of herpetology in 2003 and has since been teaching the NHV course. Rauri Bowie was hired as a new bird curator and began teaching the NHV in 2008. During this transitional period within the MVZ there have been a number of different instructors involved with the NHV, usually MVZ advanced graduate students and postdoctoral fellows.
187. Ned Johnson, 'Introduction to Integrative Biology 104', Ned Johnson Teaching Files, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, Berkeley (Subsequently NJ-MVZ), folder: Vertebrate Speciation, underlining in original.
188. Donald Hoffmeister to Oliver P. Pearson, 6 December 1992, Oliver P. Pearson Papers, Pearson home, Orinda, California.
189. Personal communication with James L. Patton, 14 December 2009, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, Berkeley, California. Information about instructors was gathered by systematically surveying the University of California, Berkeley, Course Catalogues (1905-2005) in the Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley, and corroborated by personal discussions with William Z. Lidicker and James L. Patton.
190. Joseph Grinnell, 15 February 1937, 'Individual field project in ornithology', JHGP-B, Box 9, Folder 8.
191. Grinnell, op. cit. (112).
192. Grinnell, op. cit. (112).
193. Johnson, op. cit. (109).
194. Alden H. Miller, '1957 Zoology 113 Speciation', NJ-MVZ, folder: Vertebrate Speciation, underlining in original.
195. Miller, op. cit. (116).
196. David Wake, 20 September 1973, 'Annual Report July 1, 1972-June 30, 1973', Annual Report Files, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, Reprint Room, Berkeley (Subsequently ARF);
197. Wake, 26 September 1974 'Annual Report July 1, 1973-June 30, 1974', ARF.
198. Ernst Mayr, 'Alden Holmes Miller', Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences (1973) 43, pp. 177-214.
199. Hall, op. cit. (5).
200. Hall, op. cit. (5), p. 412.
201. Among many others, Storer, Hall, Benson and Miller promoted the Grinnellian approach in the MVZ and also later at the University of California, Davis (Storer) and the University of Kansas (Hall), and more broadly within the American Society of Mammalogists and the American Ornithological Union. See footnote 12 above.
202. Grinnell to Alexander, op. cit. (20).