What Sustains Wildlife Crime? Rhino Horn Trading and the Resilience of Criminal Networks

Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy

Volumn 16, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 57-80

  Ayling, Julie ^a  

^a AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CRIME; HORN; PARALLEL ECONOMY; SUSTAINABILITY; WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT;

EID: 84875389488     PISSN: 13880292     EISSN: 15481476     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13880292.2013.764776     Document Type: Article

References (163)

1. Michael Mackinnon, Supplying Exotic Animals for the Roman Amphitheatre Games: New Reconstructions Combining Archaeological, Ancient Textual, Historical and Ethnographic Data, 6 MOUSEION 137-161 (2006).
2. The Atlas or Carthaginian elephant that inhabited northern Africa, for instance, became extinct in that region around the 2nd century BC due to overhunting to supply the games, for use in war, and for ivory.
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6. 993 U.N.T.S. 243. CITES 'uplisting' (e.g., from the less protected Appendix II to the more protected Appendix I) may lead to an increase in the commercial value of a species and consequentially to more illegal trading in that species. Philippe Rivalan and his colleagues note that the price of rhino horn on Korean markets increased by more than 400 percent within two years of listing, and this coincided with an increase in poaching of Black rhinos for the illegal horn trade.
7. Philippe Rivalan et al., Can Bans Stimulate Wildlife Trade? 447 NATURE 529-530 (2007).
8. In addition to CITES, the main agreements are the Convention on Biological Diversity, 5 June 1992, 1760 U.N.T.S. 79, entered into force on 29 December 1993; the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, 23 June 1979, 1651 U.N.T.S. 333, entered into force on 1 November 1983; the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat, 2 February 1971, 996 U.N.T.S. 245, entered into force on 21 December 1975; the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, 3 November 2001, 2400 U.N.T.S. 303, entered into force on 29 June 2004; and the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, 16 November 1972, 1037 U.N.T.S. 151, entered into force on 17 December 1975. These are supplemented by regional agreements, such as the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats, 19 September 1979, 1284 U.N.T.S. 209, entered into force 1 June 1982, and agreements that relate to specific parts of the globe, such as the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, 20 May 1980, 1329 U.N.T.S. 47, entered into force 7 April 1982.
9. Jeremy Haken, Transnational Crime in the Developing World, Report for Global Financial Integrity (Washington, D.C., February 2011), at 11. http://www.gfintegrity.org/storage/gfip/documents/reports/transcrime/gfitransnationalcrimeweb.pdf.
10. TRAFFIC, Wildlife Trade: What Is It? http://www.traffic.org/trade/.
11. Global Financial Integrity, Transnational Crime in the Developing World: Rankings, http://transcrime.gfintegrity.org/.
12. A network can be defined as 'a set of nodes (e.g., persons, organizations) linked by a set of social relationships (e.g., friendship, transfer of funds, overlapping membership) of a specified type'.
13. Nitin Nohria, Is a Network Perspective a Useful Way of Studying Organizations? in NETWORKS AND ORGANIZATIONS: STRUCTURE, FORM, AND ACTION 1-22, 4 (Nitin Nohria & Robert G. Eccles eds., 1992).
14. The term 'criminal networks' is used in this article to mean forms of criminal organising where linkages of communication and exchange among actors are predominantly lateral or horizontal, giving these forms of organising more flexibility and adaptive capacity than vertically configured hierarchies.
15. Phil Williams, Transnational Criminal Networks, in NETWORKS AND NETWARS: THE FUTURE OF TERROR, CRIME AND MILITANCY 61-97 (John Arquilla & David Ronfeldt eds., 2001).
16. That is not to say that hierarchies cannot form parts of networks.
17. Vanda Felbab-Brown, The Disappearing Act: The Illicit Trade in Wildlife in Asia, Working Paper No. 6 (Brookings Institution, Washington, D.C., June 2011), at 13.
18. John T. Webb, Prosecuting Wildlife Traffickers: Important Cases, Many Tools, Good Results, 2 VT. J. ENVTL. L. 1-12 (2000-2001).
19. Melanie Wellsmith, Wildlife Crime: The Problems of Enforcement, 17 EUR. J. CRIM. POL. RES. 125-148 (2011).
20. Mara E. Zimmerman, The Black Market for Wildlife: Combating Transnational Organized Crime in the Illegal Wildlife Trade, 36 VAND. J. TRANSNAT'L L. 1657-1690 (2003).
21. Jacqueline Schneider, Reducing the Illicit Trade in Endangered Wildlife: The Market Reduction Approach, 24 J. CONTEMP. CRIM. JUSTICE 274-295 (2008).
22. Adam Graycar & Marcus Felson, Situational Prevention of Organised Timber Theft and Related Corruption, in SITUATIONAL PREVENTION OF ORGANISED CRIMES 81-92 (Karen Bullock, Ronald V. Clarke, & Nick Tilley eds., 2010).
23. Melanie Wellsmith, The Applicability of Crime Prevention to Problems of Environmental Harm: A Consideration of Illicit Trade in Endangered Species, in GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL HARM: CRIMINOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES 132-149 (Rob White ed., 2010).
24. Stephen F. Pires & William D. Moreto, Preventing Wildlife Crime: Solutions That Can Overcome the 'Tragedy of the Commons', 17 EUR. J. CRIM. POL. RES. 101-123 (2011).
25. Felbab-Brown, supra note 12.
26. Greg L. Warchol, The Transnational Illegal Wildlife Trade, 17 CRIM. JUSTICE STUDIES 57-73 (2004).
27. Stephen F. Pires, The Illegal Parrot Trade: A Literature Review, 13 GLOBAL CRIME 176-190 (2012).
28. Nigel South & Tanya Wyatt, Comparing Illicit Trades in Wildlife and Drugs: An Exploratory Study, 32 DEVIANT BEHAVIOR 538-561 (2011).
29. Tom Milliken & Jo Shaw, The South Africa-Viet Nam Rhino Horn Trade Nexus: A Deadly Combination of Institutional Lapses, Corrupt Wildlife Industry Professionals and Asian Crime Syndicates (A TRAFFIC Report, Johannesburg 2012), http://www.traffic.org/speciesreports/traffic species mammals66.pdf.
30. TRAFFIC Network Report, On a Knife's Edge: The Rhinoceros Horn Trade in Yemen (May 1997), http://www.traffic.org/species-reports/traffic species mammals30.pdf.
31. Rhishja Cota-Larson, Yemen No Longer Major Destination for Illegal Rhino Horn (13 January 2010), http://savingrhinos.org/rhinohornyemen.html.
32. Lucy Vigne & Esmond Martin, Yemen's Attitudes towards Rhino Horn and Jambiyas, 44 PACHYDERM 45-53 (2008).
33. Alan Rabinowitz, Helping a Species Go Extinct: The Sumatran Rhino in Borneo, 9 CONSERVATION BIOLOGY 482-488 (1995).
34. Stephen Lang, Rhinoceros Libation Cups, Penn Museum Blog (29 July 2011), http://www.penn.museum/blog/museum/rhinoceros-libation-cups/.
35. Contrary to many media reports, rhino horn has never been prescribed by TCM practitioners as an aphrodisiac, although recent marketing in Vietnam of horn for this purpose has been documented.
36. Milliken & Shaw, supra note 16, at 15.
37. This rumour is attributed to a report that a Vietnamese official was cured of his liver cancer by taking it, but neither the official nor the source of the rumour can be located.
38. TRAFFIC, Lid Lifted on Vietnamese Rhino Horn Trade (24 May 2011), http://www.traffic.org/home/2011/5/24/lid-lifted-onvietnamese-rhino-horn-trade.html.
39. Milliken & Shaw, supra note 16, at 105.
40. According to Lang, the others are a wish granting pearl, double coins, coral, a sceptre, double lozenges, a stone chime, and an ingot.
41. Lang, supra note 21.
42. Florence Li-Hwa Lee, Interpretation of Chinese Officials Ranks by the Insignias Found on Mandarin Squares (unpublished Master's Report submitted in partial fulfilment for the M.Sc., Kansas State University, 1969), http://krex.k-state.edu/dspace/handle/2097/7229.
43. Patricia B. Welch, CHINESE ART: A GUIDE TO MOTIFS AND VISUAL IMAGERY (2008).
44. Lang, supra note 21.
45. Face consumption involves 'acts of conspicuous consumption in order to enhance, maintain or save face.'.
46. Milliken & Shaw, supra note 16, at 135.
47. Adam Vaughan, Affluent Vietnamese Driving Rhino Horn Poaching in South Africa, Report Warns, THE GUARDIAN, 23 July 2012, http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2012/jul/23/vietnam-rhino-hornpoaching-south-africa.
48. John Scanlon, Ivory and Insecurity: The Global Implications of Poaching in Africa, Testimony of the Secretary-General of CITES to the Senate Foreign Relations Committee (Washington, D.C., 22 May 2012), http://www.foreign.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/ScanlonTestimony.pdf.
49. The recovery of White rhino numbers in southern Africa was due in part to the success of the trophyhunting business and of pioneering wildlife management strategies in South Africa.
50. Millken & Shaw, supra note 16, at 46.
51. IUCN, Red List of Threatened Species, http://www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/species/ourwork/theiucnredlist/. Schneider, supra note 14, at 284, says that the Red List 'provides taxonomic and conservation status of species to determine the relative risk of extinction and to highlight those taxa facing higher risks of global extinction.'.
52. For a detailed explanation of these terms, see IUCN, Red List Categories and Criteria (14 February 2012), http://www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/species/ourwork/theiucnredlist/resources/iucnredlistcategoriescriteria/. The International Rhino Foundation defines 'critically endangered' to mean that a species has at least a 50 percent chance of becoming extinct within three generations (about 30-60 years). See International Rhino Foundation, 25 Things You Might not Know about Rhinos, http://www.rhinos.org/25-things-you-didn-t-know-about-rhinos.
53. Rhino Survival Trust, Rhino Files: Poaching Statistics, http://rhinosurvival.org/rhino-files/stats/.
54. South Africa, Department of Environmental Affairs, Minister Molewa updates South Africans on the rhino situation and measures to thwart poaching (10 January 2013), http://www.environment.gov.za/?q=content/molewa updates southafricans rhinosituation measures. Poaching also occurs in a number of other African countries, including Kenya and Zimbabwe, as well as in parts of Asia where rhinos live. Poaching resulted in the death of the last remaining Javan rhino in Vietnam (Rhinoceros sondaicus annamiticus) in October 2011. See WWF Global, Javan Rhinoceros, http://wwf.panda.org/what we do/ endangered species/rhinoceros/asian rhinos/javan rhinoceros/. The Western Black rhino (diceros bicornis longipes) was also declared extinct in 2011. See IUCN, supra note 31.
55. Scanlon, supra note 29.
56. Sue Blaine, South Africa's Rhino Population Dwindles, BDLIVE, 17 July 2012, http://www.businesslive.co.za/southafrica/samarkets/2012/07/17/south-africas-rhino-population-dwindles.
57. WWF claims that rhino poaching increased 3,000 percent between 2007 and 2011. See WWF, Illegal Wildlife Trade: Overview, http://www.worldwildlife.org/what/globalmarkets/wildlifetrade/.
58. International Rhino Foundation, http://www.rhinos.org/. Scanlon, supra note 29, at 8, estimates that there are 25,000 rhinos left in the wild.
59. African Wildlife Foundation, Rhino Summit Emergency Plan of Action: Toward a Comprehensive Response to the Rhino Poaching Crisis, Version 1.0 (Nairobi, Kenya, 3 April 2012), http://www.awf.org/documents/RhinoActionPlan2.pdf.
60. CITES, Establishment of Export Quotas for Black Rhinoceros Hunting Trophies, Resolution Conf. 13.5 (Rev.CoP14), available http://www.cites.org/eng/res/13/13-05R14C15.php.
61. Milliken & Shaw, supra note 16, at 52ff.
62. Damien Mander, Damned if You Do and Damned if You Don't-Legalising the Rhino Horn Trade (10 June 2012), http://www.iapf.org/images/documents/vietnam.pdf.
63. Asia News Network, Vietnam Denies Being Main Rhino Horn Market, JAKARTA POST, August 2012, http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/08/27/vietnam-denies-being-main-rhinohorn-market.html.
64. TRAFFIC/WWF, Viet Nam Acknowledges Severity of Rhino Trade (20 September 2012), http://www.traffic.org/home/2012/9/20/viet-nam-acknowledges-severity-of-rhino-trade.html.
65. Milliken & Shaw, supra note 16.
66. Scanlon, supra note 29.
67. Humane Society International, Rhino Horn Trade (15 September 2011), http://www.hsi.org/issues/rhinocerospoaching/facts/rhinohorntrade.html.
68. For example, in November 2011 customs officers in Hong Kong opened a shipping container that came from Cape Town and was declared as scrap plastic. They found 33 rhino horns, 758 ivory chopsticks, and 127 ivory bracelets.
69. Shaun Smillie, More Syndicates Focusing on Rhino Poaching, IOL NEWS, 9 March 2012, http://www.iol.co.za/news/crime-courts/more-syndicates-focusing-on-rhino-poaching-1.1252987.
70. Writing about the illegal reptile trade, Herbig documents some of 'the ingenious methods used by poachers to transport their illegal bounty', many of which are amenable also to the smuggling of other wildlife products, including rhino horn.
71. Joe Herbig, The Illegal Reptile Trade as a Form of Conservation Crime: A South African Criminological Investigation, in GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL HARM: CRIMINOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES, 110-131, 124 (Rob White ed., 2010).
72. South and Wyatt supra note 16, at 549-551, document a range of smuggling methods for wildlife and note overlaps between these methods and those for illicit drugs, including the use of bribery to ensure that goods pass borders without inspection and with minimal difficulty.
73. Tom Cardamone, The Global Implications of Poaching in Africa, Testimony of the Managing Director of Global Financial Integrity to the Senate Foreign Relations Committee (Washington, D.C., 24 May 2012), http://www.foreign.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/TomCardamoneTestimony.pdf.
74. CITES, Illegal Killing of Rhinoceros in South Africa, CoP15 Inf. 32, Annex I, 2.5, Fifteenth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties, Doha, 13-25 March 2010, http://www.cites.org/common/cop/15/inf/E15i-32.pdf.
75. Julian Rademeyer, Rhino Butchers Caught on Film at North West Game Farm, MAIL & GUARDIAN ONLINE, 9 November 2012, http://mg.co.za/article/2012-11-08-rhino-butchers-caught-on-film.
76. Shaun Smillie, Joy as Rhino Smuggler Gets 40 Years, IOL NEWS, 10 November 2012, http://www.iol.co.za/news/crime-courts/joy-as-rhino-smuggler-gets-40-years-1.1420788.
77. South Africa Rhino Poaching Targeted by Tightened Hunting Rules, HUFF POST GREEN, 16 April 2012, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/04/16/south-africa-rhino-poaching-rulesn1428191.html.
78. South Africa, Department of Environmental Affairs, Department of Environmental Affairs Clarifies Its Efforts to Thwart Rhino Poaching in the Country, Media Release 3 July 2012, http://www.environment.gov.za/?q=content/effortsthwartrhinopoaching.
79. South African Police Service, R55 Million Assets Seized from Poachers, Media Statement, 9 May 2012, http://www.saps.gov.za/dynamicModules/internetSite/newsBuild.asp?myURL=1498.
80. Humane Society International, Rhinoceros Horn Stockpiles-A Serious Threat to Rhinos (12 September 2011), http://www.hsi.org/assets/pdfs/rhinohornstockpilesreport.pdf.
81. Milliken & Shaw, supra note 16, at 65-67.
82. D. Hewitt, Howthe High Price of Rhino Horn Fuels European Museum Thefts, THE STAR.COM (Toronto), 1 July 2012, http://www.thestar.com/news/world/article/1218519-how-the-high-price-of-rhino-hornfuels-european-museum-thefts.
83. Ken Foy, Irish Rhino Smugglers Had Fake €120k, HERALD.IE (Dublin), 10 April 2012, http://www.herald.ie/news/irish-rhino-smugglers-had-fake-120k-3075366.html.
84. Hewitt, supra note 55.
85. Warchol, supra note 16.
86. Crash is the collective noun for rhinos.
87. US Rhino Horn Trafficking Draws Motley Profiteers, RADIO NETHERLANDS WORLDWIDE, 10 May 2012, http://www.rnw.nl/africa/bulletin/us-rhino-horn-trafficking-draws-motley-profiteers.
88. U.S., Department of Justice, Members of Smuggling Ring Plead Guilty in Los Angeles to Crimes Relating to Illegal Trafficking of Endangered Rhinoceros Horn, JUSTICE NEWS, 14 September 2012, http://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/2012/September/12-enrd-1120.html.
89. Libation cups were used on ceremonial occasions for pouring liquids such as rice wine, tea, or water as an offering to the gods or to honour the dead. Some Chinese libation cups are elaborately carved.
90. Humane Society International, supra note 54.
91. European Commission, Guidance Document: Export, Re-export and Intra-Union Trade of Rhinoceros Horns (March 2012), http://ec.europa.eu/environment/cites/pdf/rhinohorns.pdf.
92. The agenda for the Committee on Trade in Wild Fauna and Flora's 60th Meeting in Brussels on 24 September 2012 http://ec.europa.eu/environment/cites/pdf/ctwff/60agendacom.pdf.
93. 2225 U.N.T.S. 209. UNTOC obliges signatories to criminalize serious transnational crime committed by an organised criminal group (Article 3 (1)), defining serious crime broadly and an 'organized criminal group' as 'a structured group of three or more persons, existing for a period of time, and acting in concert with the aim of committing one or more serious crimes or offences established in accordance with the convention, in order to obtain, directly or indirectly, a financial or other material benefit' (Art. 2(a)).
94. Toine Spapens, Macro Networks, Collectives, and Business Processes: An Integrated Approach to Organized Crime, 18 EUR. J. CRIME CR. L. CR. J. 185-215 (2010).
95. James Finckenauer, Problems of Definition: What Is Organized Crime? 8 TRENDS IN ORG. CRIME 63-83 (2005).
96. Milliken & Shaw, supra note 16, at 82.
97. Pires & Moreto, supra note 14, at 104.
98. Environmental Investigation Agency, Enforcement not Extinction: Zero Tolerance on Tiger Trade (EIA Report, Washington, D.C., 2010), http://www.eia-international.org/enforcement-not-extinction.
99. Monica Massari, & Paola Monzini, Dirty Businesses in Italy: A Case-study of Illegal Trafficking in Hazardous Waste, 6 GLOBAL CRIME 285-304 (2004).
100. Grace Wyler, Now Mexican Drug Cartels Are Shooting Villagers for Timber, BUS. INSIDER, 6 July 2011, http://www.businessinsider.com/now-mexican-drug-cartels-are-illegally-logging-ancient-forests-2011-7.
101. William Allen, The Fight to Save Guatemala's Maya Nature Reserve from Drug Gangs, THE GUARDIAN, 8 October 2012, http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2012/oct/08/guatemala-maya-nature-reserve-druggangs?CMP=EMCNEWEML1355.
102. Julie Ayling, Criminal Organizations and Resilience, 37 INT'L. J. L., CRIME & JUSTICE 182-196 (2009).
103. This is defined by Bouchard, when discussing illegal markets, as 'elasticity.'.
104. Martin Bouchard, On the Resilience of Illegal Drug Markets, 8 GLOBAL CRIME 325-344, 330 (2007).
105. Michael Kenney, FROM PABLO TO OSAMA; TRAFFICKING AND TERRORIST NETWORKS, GOVERNMENT BUREAUCRACIES AND COMPETITIVE ADAPTATION (2007).
106. Bouchard, supra note 73.
107. Zimmerman, supra note 13.
108. Donald R. Nelson, W. Neil Adger, & Katrina Brown, Adaptation to Environmental Change: Contributions of a Resilience Framework, 32 ANN. REV. ENVIRON. RESOUR. 395-419 (2007).
109. Ayling, supra note 72.
110. Williams, supra note 11.
111. Ayling, supra note 72.
112. Bouchard, supra note 73.
113. Williams, supra note 11.
114. Ayling, supra note 72.
115. KENNEY, supra note 75.
116. Bouchard, supra note 73.
117. Marcus Felson, Those Who Discourage Crime, in CRIME AND PLACE 53-66 (John E. Eck & David Weisburd eds., 1995).
118. Marcus Felson, CRIME AND NATURE (2006).
119. Phil Williams, Transnational Criminal Organizations: Strategic Alliances, 18 WASHINGTON QUARTERLY 57-72 (1995).
120. Ayling, supra note 72.
121. Rob White, CRIMES AGAINST NATURE: ENVIRONMENTAL CRIMINOLOGY AND ECOLOGICAL JUSTICE (2008), at 173.
122. Nikos Passas, Cross-Border Crime and the Interface between Legal and Illegal Actors, in UPPERWORLD AND UNDERWORLD IN CROSS-BORDER CRIME 61-84 (Petrus C. van Duyne, Klaus von Lampe, & Nikos Passas eds., 2002).
123. Carlo Morselli & Cynthia Giguère, Legitimate Strengths in Criminal Networks, 45 CRIME, LAW AND SOCIAL CHANGE, 185-200 (2006).
124. Bouchard, supra note 73.
125. Glen Wright, Conceptualising and Combating Transnational Environmental Crime, 14 TRENDS IN ORGANIZED CRIME 332-346 (2011).
126. Sapa, Dogs to Help Curb Rhino Poaching, NEWS24, 14 July 2012, http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/Dogs-to-help-curb-rhino-poaching-20120714.
127. South Africa: Operation Skhumba Focus on Tannery and Taxidermy Industries, ALLAFRICA, 23 August 2012, http://allafrica.com/stories/201208240726.html.
128. Leigh-Anne Hunter, Cut and Conserve, THE CITIZEN ONLINE, 4 July 2012, http://www.citizen.co.za/citizen/content/en/citizen/lifestyle-features?oid=290608&sn=Detail&pid=146826&Cut-andconserve.
129. Chemical Makes Rhino Horns Toxic, SYDNEY MORNING HERALD, 8 September 2011, http://www.smh.com.au/environment/conservation/chemical-makes-rhino-horns-toxic-20110908-1k06g.html.
130. Hunter, supra note 93.
131. Lindsey Tugman, Saving Africa's Rhinos with Technology, TODAY'S THV, 6 February 2012, http://www.todaysthv.com/news/article/194490/288/Saving-Africas-rhinoswith-technology.
132. South African National Parks, KNP Rangers Will Fly to Stop the Slaughter, Media Release, 5 June 2012, http://www.sanparks.org/about/news/default.php?id=1909.
133. Tessa Reed, Rhino DNA Project Sees Arrests, ITWEB, 20 April 2012, http://www.itweb.co.za/index.php?option=comcontent&view=article&id=53739.
134. Milliken & Shaw, supra note 16.
135. Masoka Dube, Minister Cracks Whip on Horn Stockpiles, NEWS24, 5 April 2012, http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/Minister-cracks-whip-on-horn-stockpiles-20120405.
136. Siyabonga Mkhwanazi, Molewa Eyes China in Anti-Poaching Fight, THE NEW AGE 2 (South Africa), 10 August 2012, http://www.thenewage.co.za/58677-1007-53-MolewaeyesChinainantipoachingfight.
137. Sue Blaine, Agreement with Vietnam 'Marks Turning Point' for Rhino Conservation, BDLIVE, 10 December 2012, http://www.bdlive.co.za/national/science/2012/12/10/agreementwith-vietnam-marks-turning-point-for-rhino-conservation.
138. South Africa, Department of Environmental Affairs, supra note 34.
139. Warchol, supra note 16, at 65.
140. INTERPOL, Environmental Crime, http://www.interpol.int/Crime-areas/Environmental-crime/Environmental-crime.
141. Milliken & Shaw, supra note 16.
142. Williams, supra note 11.
143. Ayling, supra note 72.
144. For a discussion of different types of criminal networks, such as chain, hub and spoke, centre/periphery, and web,
145. Williams, supra note 11.
146. Carlo Morselli, INSIDE CRIMINAL NETWORKS (2009).
147. Douglas Hay, Poaching and the Game Laws on Cannock Chase, 189-253, in DOUGLAS HAY, PETER LINEBAUGH, JOHN G. RULE, E. P. THOMPSON, & CAL WINSLOW, ALBION'S FATAL TREE: CRIME AND SOCIETY IN EIGHTEENTH CENTURY ENGLAND (1975).
148. A conservancy is defined by the National Association of Conservancies (South Africa) as 'a registered voluntary association between land users/owners who cooperatively wish to manage their natural resources in an environmentally sustainable manner without necessarily changing the land-use of their properties,' http://www.nacsa.org.za/. Conservancies are often touted as examples par excellence of free market environmentalism as they provide a means to avoid the 'tragedy of the commons.'.
149. Terry L. Anderson & Donald R. et al, FREE MARKET ENVIRONMENTALISM, ch.11 (rev. ed., 2001).
150. Milking the Rhino (Kartemquin Films 2009) for an illustration of how conservancies and similar community-based strategies are being used in Namibia (amongst the Himba in the Marienfluss Valley) and Kenya (amongst the Maasai in the Il Ngwesi area) to further the conservation of wildlife and defend it from poaching.
151. Ronald V. Clarke, Situational Crime Prevention, in BUILDING A SAFER SOCIETY: STRATEGIC APPROACHES TO CRIME PREVENTION 91-150 (Michael Tonry & David P. Farrington eds., 1995).
152. KENNEY, supra note 75.
153. Julie Ayling, Gang Change and Evolutionary Theory, 56 CRIME, LAW AND SOCIAL CHANGE 1-26 (2011).
154. Transparency International, Corruption Perceptions Index 2011, http://cpi.transparency.org/cpi2011/results/ (accessed 10 December 2012). This index ranks countries on perceived levels of public sector corruption: the lower the score, the higher the perception of corruption.
155. Milliken & Shaw, supra note 16, at 131.
156. For example, discuss routes and methods for trafficking of rhino horn from South Africa to Vietnam.
157. Tony Carnie, Plan to Sell Rhino Horns to China, IOL NEWS, 13 July 2012, http://www.iol.co.za/news/politics/plan-to-sell-rhino-horns-to-china-1.1340599.
158. Mark Jones, Rhinos in Crisis-And Why the Market Won't Save Them, HUFFPOST IMPACT (UK), 29 May 2012, http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/mark-jones/rhinos-in-crisisb1549894.html.
159. Mary Rice, Legalised Trade Is a Cover for Laundering Wildlife, MAIL & GUARDIAN ONLINE (South Africa), 9 March 2012, http://mg.co.za/article/2012-03-09-legalised-trade-is-a-cover-for-launderingwildlife/.
160. Gerhard Swanepoel, A Criminological Perspective on Illegal Trade, 11 REF JOURNAL 20-24 (1997).
161. Jones, supra note 115.
162. Consider, for example, the argument that 'domestication removes the animal from its evolutionary and ecological context.... A consequence of domestication is the loss or gross modification of natural social and reproductive behaviours, and the web of trophic and mutualistic relationships of which the species was an evolved part does not accompany it into the domestic sphere.'.
163. Euan Ritchie & Angus Martin, Farming Endangered Species to Save Them-Extinction by Another Means? THE CONVERSATION, 28 May 2012, http://theconversation.edu.au/farming-endangered-species-to-save-themextinction-by-another-means-7192.