Efficiency of irrigation water use: A review from the perspectives of multiple disciplines

Agronomy Journal

Volumn 105, Issue 2, 2013, Pages 351-363

  Nair, Shyam ^a   Johnson, Jeff ^a   Wang, Chenggang ^a  

^a TEXAS TECH UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84875164569     PISSN: 00021962     EISSN: 14350645     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2134/agronj2012.0421     Document Type: Review

References (140)

1. Allen, R.G., C. Burt, A.J. Clemmens, and L.S. Willardson. 1996. Water conservation definitions from a hydrologic viewpoint. In: C. Bathala, editor, North American Water and Environmental Congress, Anaheim, CA. 22-28 June 1996. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., Reston, VA. p. 899-904.
2. American Heritage Dictionary. 2011. The essential American Heritage dictionary of the English language. 5Thed. Houghton Mifflin, New York.
3. Anderson, G.D., J.J. Opaluch, and W.M. Sullivan. 1985. Nonpoint agricultural pollution: Pesticide contamination of groundwater supplies. Am. J. Agric. Econ. 67:1238-1243. doi:10.2307/1241408
4. Anderson, W.K. 1992. Increasing grain yield and water use of wheat in a rainfed Mediterranean type environment. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 43:1-17. doi:10.1071/AR9900811
5. Bacon, M.A. 2004. Water use efficiency in plant biology. In: M.A. Bacon, editor, Water use efficiency in plant biology. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. p. 1-26.
6. Bagley, J.M. 1965. Effects of competition on efficiency of water use. J. Irrig. Drain. Div. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 91:69-77.
7. Bastiaanssen, W.G.M., and M.G. Bos. 1999. Irrigation performance indicators based on remotely sensed data: A review of literature. Irrig. Drain. Syst. 13:291-311. doi:10.1023/A:1006355315251
8. Beattie, B.R., C.R. Taylor, and M.J. Watts. 2009. The economics of production. 2nd ed. Krieger Publ. Co., Malabar, FL.
9. Blair, A.W., and E.T. Smerdon. 1988. Unimodal surface irrigation efficiency. J. Irrig. Drain. Eng. 114:156-168. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9437(1988)114:1(156)
10. Bontemps, C., and S. Couture. 1999. Dynamics and uncertainty in environmental and natural resource management under scarcity: The case of irrigation. Paper presented at the American Agricultural Economics Association Annual Meeting, Nashville, TN. 8-11 Aug. 1999. Paper 21504.
11. Bos, M.G. 1979. Standards for irrigation efficiencies of ICID. J. Irrig. Drain. Div. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 105:37-43.
12. Bos, M.G. 1980. Irrigation efficiencies at crop production level. Int. Comm. Irrig. Drain. Bull. 29:18-26.
13. Bos, M.G. 1985. Summary of ICID definitions on irrigation efficiency. Int. Comm. Irrig. Drain. Bull. 34:28-31.
14. Bos, M.G. 1997. Performance indicators for irrigation and drainage. Irrig. Drain. Syst. 11:119-137. doi:10.1023/A:1005826407118
15. Bos, M.G., D.H. Murray-Rust, D.J. Merrey, H.G. Johnson, and W.B. Snellen. 1994. Methodologies for assessing performance of irrigation and drainage management. Irrig. Drain. Syst. 7:231-261. doi:10.1007/BF00881553
16. Bos, M.G., and J. Nugteren. 1990. On irrigation efficiencies. 4Thed. Int. Inst. Land Reclam. Improve., Wageningen, the Netherlands.
17. Bos, M.G., and W. Wolters. 1989. Project or overall irrigation efficiency. In: J.R, Rydzewski and C.F. Ward, editors, Proceedings of the International Conference on Irrigation Theory and Practice, Southampton, UK. 12-15 Sept. 1989. Pentech Press, London. p. 499-506.
18. Bos, M.G., and W. Wolters. 1990. Water charges and irrigation efficiencies. Irrig. Drain. Syst. 4:267-278. doi:10.1007/BF01117746
19. Bouwer, A. 1992. Agricultural and municipal use of waste water. Water Sci. Technol. 26:1583-1591.
20. Braden, J.B., G.V. Johnson, A. Bouzaher, and D. Miltz. 1989. Optimal spatial management of agricultural pollution. Am. J. Agric. Econ. 71:404-413. doi:10.2307/1241598
21. Bralts, V.F., I. Wu, and H.M. Gitlin. 1981. Manufacturing variation in drip irrigation uniformity. Trans. ASAE 24:113-119.
22. Bronson, K.F., J.D. Booker, J.P. Bordovsky, J.W. Keeling, T.A. Wheeler, R.K. Boman, et al. 2006. Site-specific irrigation and nitrogen management for cotton production in the southern High Plains. Agron. J. 98:212-219. doi:10.2134/agronj2005.0149
23. Brouwer, C., K. Prins, and M. Heibloem. 1989. Irrigation water management: Irrigation scheduling. Annexure I. Training Manual 4. FAO, Rome.
24. Bucks, D.A., S.G. Allen, R.L. Roth, and B.R. Gardner. 1988. Short staple cotton under micro and level-basin irrigation methods. Irrig. Sci. 9:161-176. doi:10.1007/BF00275429
25. Burness, H.S., and J.P. Quirk. 1980. Water law, water transfers, and economic efficiency: The Colorado River. J. Law Econ. 23:111-134. doi:10.1086/466954
26. Burt, C.M., A.J. Clemmens, T.S. Strelkoff, K.H. Solomon, R.D. Bliesner, L.A. Hardy, et al. 1997. Irrigation performance measures: Efficiency and uniformity. J. Irrig. Drain. Eng. 123:423-442. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9437(1997)123:6(423)
27. Burt, C.M., R.E. Walker, and S.W. Styles. 1992. Irrigation system evaluation manual. Irrig. Train. Res. Ctr., California Polytechnic State Univ., San Luis Obispo.
28. Carter, R., M. Kay, and J. Feyen. 1999. Water losses in small holder irrigation schemes. Agric. Water Manage. 40:15-24. doi:10.1016/S0378-3774(98)00098-5
29. Christiansen, J.E. 1942. Irrigation by sprinkling. Bull. 670. Univ. of California Agric. Exp. Stn., Berkeley.
30. Clark, L.J., E.W. Carpenter, and D.C. Slack. 1992. The use of AZSCHED to schedule irrigations for cotton. In: Proceedings of the Beltwide Cotton Conferences, Nashville, TN. 10-14 Jan. 1992. Natl. Cotton Counc., Memphis, TN. p. 496-498.
31. Clemmens, A.J., and M.G. Bos. 1990. Statistical methods for irrigation system water delivery performance evaluation. Irrig. Drain. Syst. 4:345-365. doi:10.1007/BF01103713
32. Clothier, B.E., and S.R. Green. 1994. Rootzone processes and the efficient use of irrigation water. Agric. Water Manage. 25:1-12. doi:10.1016/0378-3774(94)90048-5
33. Cohen, J.E. 2003. Human population: The next half century. Science 302:1172-1175. doi:10.1126/science.1088665
34. Cohen, O.P., and E. Bresler. 1967. The effect of nonuniform water application on soil moisture content, moisture depletion, and irrigation efficiency. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 31:117-121. doi:10.2136/sssaj1967.03615995003100010029x
35. Condon, A.G., R.A. Richards, G.J. Rebetzke, and G.D. Farquhar. 2002. Improving intrinsic water-use efficiency and crop yield. Crop Sci. 42:122-131. doi:10.2135/cropsci2002.0122
36. Cooper, P.J.M., P.J. Gregory, D. Tully, and H.G. Harris. 1987. Improving water use efficiency of annual crops in rainfed farming systems of West Africa and North Africa. Exp. Agric. 23:113-158. doi:10.1017/S001447970001694X
37. Davies, W.J., S. Wilkinson, and B. Loveys. 2002. Stomata control by chemical signaling and the exploitation of this mechanism to increase water use efficiency in agriculture. New Phytol. 153:449-460. doi:10.1046/j.0028-646X.2001.00345.x
38. de Wit, C.T. 1958. Transpiration and crop yields. Pap. 64.6. Inst. Biol. Chem. Res. Field Crops Herbage, Wageningen, the Netherlands.
39. Dinar, A., M.W. Rosegrant, and R. Meinzen-Dick. 1997. Water allocation mechanisms: Principles and examples. Policy Res. Work. Pap. 1779. World Bank, Washington, DC.
40. Droogers, P., and G. Kite. 1999. Water productivity from irrigated basin modeling. Irrig. Drain. Syst. 13:275-290. doi:10.1023/A:1006345724659
41. Dukes, M., and C. Perry. 2006. Uniformity testing of variable rate center pivot irrigation control systems. Precis. Agric. 7:205-218. doi:10.1007/s11119-006-9020-y
42. Evans, R.G., G.W. Buchleiter, E.J. Sadler, B.A. King, and G.B. Harting. 2000. Controls for precision irrigation with self-propelled systems. In: R.G. Evans et al., editors, Proceedings of the 4th Decennial National Irrigation Symposium, Phoenix, AZ. 14-16 Nov. 2000. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng., St. Joseph, MI. p. 322-332.
43. Färe, R., S. Grosskopf, and W.L. Weber. 2006. Shadow prices and pollution costs in U.S. agriculture. Ecol. Econ. 56:89-103. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2004.12.022
44. Fedoroff, N.V., D.S. Batisti, R.N. Beachy, P.J.M. Cooper, D.A. Fischhoff, C.N. Hodges, et al. 2010. Radically rethinking agriculture for the 21st century. Science 327:833-834. doi:10.1126/science.1186834
45. Field, C., J. Merino, and H.A. Mooney. 1983. Comparison between water-use efficiency and nitrogen-use efficiency in five species of California evergreens. Oecologia 60:384-389. doi:10.1007/BF00376856
46. Gleick, P.H. 2003. Global freshwater resources: Soft-path solutions for the 21st century. Science 302:1524-1528. doi:10.1126/science.1089967
47. Goodwin, I., and A.M. Boland. 2002. Scheduling deficit irrigation of fruit trees for optimizing water use efficiency. In: Deficit irrigation practices. Water Rep. 22. FAO, Rome. p. 67-79.
48. Gregory, P.J. 2004. Agronomic approaches to increasing water use efficiency. In: M.A. Bacon, editor, Water use efficiency in plant biology. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. p.142-170.
49. Gregory, P.J., G.P. Warren, and L.P. Simmonds. 1997. Interactions between plant nutrients, water and carbon dioxide as factors limiting crop yield. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. B 352:987-996. doi:10.1098/rstb.1997.0077
50. Griffin, R.C., and D.W. Bromley. 1982. Agricultural runoffas a nonpoint externality: A theoretical development. Am. J. Agric. Econ. 64:547-552. doi:10.2307/1240648
51. Guinn, G., J.R. Mauney, and K.E. Fry. 1981. Irrigation scheduling and plant population effects on growth, bloom rates, boll abscission and yield of cotton. Agron. J. 73:529-534. doi:10.2134/agronj1981.00021962007300030030x
52. Hardin, G. 1968. The tragedy of the commons. Science 162:1243-1248. doi:10.1126/science.162.3859.1243
53. Hart, W.E. 1961. Overhead irrigation pattern parameters. Agric. Eng. 42:354-355.
54. Hart, W.E. 1972. Subsurface distribution of non-uniformly applied surface waters. Trans. ASAE 15:656-661.
55. Hart, W.E., and W.N. Reynolds. 1965. Analytical design of the sprinkler systems. Trans. ASAE 8:83-85.
56. Hedley, C.B., and I.J. Yule. 2009. Soil water status mapping and two variablerate irrigation scenarios. Precis. Agric. 10:342-355. doi:10.1007/s11119-009-9119-z
57. Helfand, G.E., and B.W. House. 1995. Regulating nonpoint source pollution under heterogeneous conditions. Am. J. Agric. Econ. 77:1024-1032. doi:10.2307/1243825
58. Hodge, I. 1995. Environmental economics: Individual incentives and public choices. Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, UK.
59. Holzapfel, E.A., M.A. Mariño, and J. Chavez-Morales. 1985. Performance irrigation parameters and their relationship to surface irrigation design variables and yield. Agric. Water Manage. 10:159-174. doi:10.1016/0378-3774(85)90004-6
60. Howell, D.T. 1964. Sprinkler nonuniformity characteristics and yield. J. Irrig. Drain. Div. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 90:55-67.
61. Howell, T.A. 2001. Enhancing water use efficiency in irrigated agriculture. Agron. J. 93:281-289. doi:10.2134/agronj2001.932281x
62. Howell, T.A. 2003. Irrigation efficiency. In: B.A. Stewart and T.A. Howell, editors, Encyclopedia of water science. Marcel Dekker, New York. p. 467-472.
63. International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage. 1978. Standards for the calculation of irrigation efficiencies. Int. Comm. Irrig. Drain. Bull. 27:91-101.
64. Israelsen, O.W. 1950. Irrigation principles and practices. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
65. Jalota, S.K., R. Khera, and S.S. Chahal. 2001. Straw management and tillage effects on soil water storage under field conditions. Soil Use Manage. 17:282-287. doi:10.1079/SUM200193
66. Jensen, M.E. 1977. Water conservation and irrigation systems. In: Proceedings of the climate-technology seminar, Colombia, MO. 25-26 Oct. 1977. College of Agric., Univ. of Missouri, Colombia. p. 208-250.
67. Jensen, M.E. 1993. The impact of irrigation and drainage on the environment. 5th Gulhati memorial lecture. Int. Commiss. Irrig. Drain., Hague, the Netherlands.
68. Jensen, M.E., S. Harrison, H.C. Coven, and F.E. Robinson. 1980. The role of irrigation in food and fiber production, in design and operation of farm irrigation systems. In: M.E. Jensen, editor, Design and operation of farm irrigation systems. ASAE Monogr. 3. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng., St. Joseph, MI. p. 15-41.
69. Jensen, M.E., W.R. Rangeley, and P.J. Dieleman. 1990. Irrigation trends in world agriculture. In: M.A. Stewart and D.R. Nielsen, editors, Irrigation of agricultural crops. Agron. Monogr. 30. ASA, CSSA, SSSA, Madison, WI.
70. Jones, H. 2004. What is water use efficiency? In: M.A. Bacon, editor, Water use efficiency in plant biology. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. p. 27-40.
71. Joshi, M.C., J.S. Boyer, and P.J. Kramer. 1965. Growth, carbon dioxide exchange, transpiration, and transpiration ratio of pineapple. Bot. Gaz. 126:174-179. doi:10.1086/336315
72. Kang, S., L. Zhang, X. Hu, Z. Li, and P.H. Jerie. 2001. An improved water use efficiency for hot pepper grown under controlled alternate drip irrigation on partial roots. Sci. Hortic. 89:257-267. doi:10.1016/S0304-4238(00)00245-4
73. Keller, A., and J. Keller. 1995. Effective efficiency: A water use efficiency concept for allocating freshwater resources. Discuss. Pap. 22. Ctr. for Econ. Policy Stud., Winrock Int., Arlington, VA.
74. Keller, A., J. Keller, and D. Seckler. 1996. Integrated water resource systems: Theory and policy implications. Res. Rep. 3. Int. Irrig. Manage. Inst., Colombo, Sri Lanka.
75. Koundouri, P. 2004a. Current issues in the economics of groundwater management. J. Econ. Surv. 18:703-740. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6419.2004.00234.x
76. Koundouri, P. 2004b. Potential for groundwater management: Gisser-Sanchez effect reconsidered. Water Resour. Res. 40:W06S16. doi:10.1029/2003WR002164
77. Kramer, P.J. 1980. Drought, stress, and the origin of adaptations. In: N.C. Turner and P.J. Kramer, editors, Adaptation of plants to water and high temperature stress. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
78. Kramer, P.J. 1983. Water relations of plants. Academic Press, San Diego.
79. Kramer, P.J., and J.S. Boyer. 1995. Water relations of plants and soils. Academic Press, San Diego.
80. Kruse, E.G. 1978. Describing irrigation efficiency and uniformity. J. Irrig. Drain. Div. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 104:35-41.
81. Land Commodities. 2009. The Land Commodities global agriculture and farmland investment report. Land Commodities, Baar, Switzerland. http://www.landcommodities.com/ (accessed 12 Apr. 2012).
82. Loveys, B.R., M. Stoll, and W.J. Davies. 2004. Physiological approaches to enhance water use efficiency in agriculture: Exploiting plant signaling in novel irrigation practice. In: M.A. Bacon, editor, Water use efficiency in plant biology. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. p. 113-141.
83. Molden, D. 1997. Accounting for water use and productivity. System-Wide Initiative for Water Management (SWIM) Rep. 1. Int. Irrig. Manage. Ins., Colombo, Sri Lanka.
84. Molden, D., and R. Sakthivadivel. 1999. Water accounting to assess use and productivity of water. Water Resour. Dev. 15:55-71. doi:10.1080/07900629948934
85. Molden, D., R. Sakthivadivel, C.J. Perry, C. de Fraiture, and W.H. Kloezen. 1998. Indicators for comparing performance of irrigated agricultural systems. Res. Rep. 20. Int. Water Manage. Inst., Colombo, Sri Lanka.
86. Monteith, J.L. 1986. How do crops manipulate water supply and demand? Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. B 316:245-259. doi:10.1098/rsta.1986.0007
87. Neales, T.F., A.A. Patterson, and V.J. Hartney. 1968. Physiological adaptation to drought in the carbon assimilation and water loss of xerophytes. Nature 219:469-472. doi:10.1038/219469a0
88. Newman, J.S. 1966. Irrigation water management: Cotton and grain sorghum. In: Report of progress 1965-66. South Plains Res. Ext. Ctr., Lubbock, TX. p. 63-72.
89. Ostrom, E., R. Gardner, and J. Walker. 1994. Rules, games, and common-pool resources. Univ. of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.
90. Papendick, R.I., J.F. Parr, and R.E. Meyer. 1990. Managing crop residues to optimize crop/livestock production systems for dryland agriculture. Adv. Soil Sci. 13:253-272. doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-8982-8_13
91. Passioura, J. 2004. Increasing water productivity when water is scarce: From breeding to field management. In: T. Fischer et al., editors, New directions for a diverse planet: Proceedings of the 4th International Crop Science Congress, Brisbane, Australia. [CD.] 26 Sept.-1 Oct. 2004. The Regional Inst., Gosford, Australia.
92. Pereira, L.S. 1999. Higher performance through combined improvements in irrigation methods and scheduling: A discussion. Agric. Water Manage. 40:153-169. doi:10.1016/S0378-3774(98)00118-8
93. Pereira, L.S., T. Oweis, and A. Zairi. 2002. Irrigation management under water scarcity. Agric. Water Manage. 57:175-206. doi:10.1016/S0378-3774(02)00075-6
94. Perry, C.J. 1996. The IIMI water balance framework: A model for project level analysis. Res. Rep. 5. Int. Irrig. Manage. Inst., Colombo, Sri Lanka.
95. Pierce, F.J., and P. Nowak. 1999. Aspects of precision agriculture. Adv. Agron. 67:1-85.
96. Pinstrup-Andersen, P., R. Pandya-Lorch, and M.W. Rosegrant. 1999. World food prospects: Critical issues for the early 21st century. Food Policy Report. Int. Food Policy Res. Inst., Washington, DC.
97. Playán, E., and L. Mateos. 2004. Modernization and optimization of irrigation systems to increase water productivity. In: T. Fischer et al., editors, New directions for a diverse planet: Proceedings of the 4th International Crop Science Congress, Brisbane, Australia. [CD.] 26 Sept.-1 Oct. 2004. The Regional Inst., Gosford, Australia.
98. Polley, H.W., H.B. Jonson, B.D. Marino, and H.S. Mayeux. 1992. Increase in C3 plant water use efficiency and biomass over glacial to present CO2 concentrations. Nature 361:61-64. doi:10.1038/361061a0
99. Postel, S.L. 1993. Water and agriculture. In: P.H. Gleick, editor, Water in crisis: A guide to the world's freshwater resources. Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, UK. p. 56-66.
100. Postel, S.L., G.C. Daily, and P.R. Ehrlich. 1996. Human appropriation of available freshwater. Science 271:785-788. doi:10.1126/science.271.5250.785
101. Radin, J.W., J.R. Mauney, and P.C. Kreig. 1989. Water uptake by cotton roots during fruit filling in relation to irrigation frequency. Crop Sci. 29:1000-1005. doi:10.2135/cropsci1989.0011183X002900040035x
102. Radin, J.W., L.L. Reaves, J.R. Mauney, and O.F. French. 1992. Yield enhancement in cotton by frequent irrigations during fruiting. Agron. J. 84:551-557. doi:10.2134/agronj1992.00021962008400040002x
103. Ramey, H.H. 1986. Stress influence on fiber development. In: J.R. Mauney and J.M. Stewart, editors, Cotton physiology. Cotton Foundation, Memphis, TN. p. 351-360.
104. Ribaudo, M., R.D. Horan, and M.E. Smith. 1999. Economics of water quality protection from nonpoint sources: Theory and practice. Agric. Econ. Rep. 782. USDA Econ. Res. Serv., Washington, DC.
105. Ritchie, J.T., and B. Basso. 2008. Water use efficiency is not constant when crop water supply is adequate or fixed: The role of agronomic management. Eur. J. Agron. 28:273-281. doi:10.1016/j.eja.2007.08.003
106. Rogers, D.H., F.R. Lamm, M. Alam, T.P. Trooien, G.A. Clark, P.L. Barnes, and K. Mankin. 1997. Efficiencies and water losses of irrigation systems. Irrig. Manage. Ser. Kansas State Univ. Coop. Ext. Serv., Manhattan.
107. Rosenzweig, M.R., and H.P. Binswanger. 1993. Wealth, weather risk and the composition and profitability of agricultural investments. Econ. J. 103:56-78. doi:10.2307/2234337
108. Sadler, E.J., C.R. Camp, D.E. Evans, and L.J. Usrey. 1996. A site-specific center pivot irrigation system for high-variability Coastal Plain soils. In: P.C. Robert et al., editors, Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Precision Agriculture, Minneapolis, MN. 23-26 June 1996. ASA, CSSA, and SSSA, Madison, WI. p. 827-834.
109. Sadler, E.J., R.G. Evans, G.W. Buchleiter, B.A. King, and C.R. Camp. 2000. Design considerations for site specific irrigation. In R.G. Evans et al, editors, Proceedings of the 4th Decennial National Irrigation Symposium, Phoenix, AZ. 14-16 Nov. 2000. Am. Soc. Agric. Eng., St. Joseph, MI. p. 304-315.
110. Seckler, D. 1996. The new era of water resource management: From "dry" to "wet" water savings. Res. Rep. 1. Int. Irrig. Manage. Inst., Colombo, Sri Lanka.
111. Seckler, D., D. Molden, and R. Sakthivadivel. 2003. The concept of efficiency in water-resources management and policy. In: J.W. Kijney and R. Baker, editors, Water productivity in agriculture: Limits and opportunities for improvement. CABI, Wallingford, UK. p. 37-51.
112. Seginer, I. 1978. A note on the economic significance of uniform water application. Irrig. Sci. 1:19-25. doi:10.1007/BF00269004
113. Shiklomanov, I. 1993. World freshwater resources. In: P.H. Gleick, editor, Water crisis: A guide to the world's freshwater resources. Oxford Univ. Press, New York. p. 13-24.
114. Shiklomanov, I. 1998. World water resources: A new appraisal and assessment for the 21st century. UNESCO, Paris.
115. Shortle, J.S., and R.D. Horan. 2001. The economics of nonpoint pollution control. J. Econ. Surv. 15:255-289.
116. Sinclair, T.R., C.B. Tanner, and J.M. Bennett. 1984. Water-use efficiency in crop production. BioScience 34:36-40. doi:10.2307/1309424
117. Singh, Y., S.S. Rao, and P.L. Regar. 2010. Deficit irrigation and nitrogen effects on seed cotton yield, water productivity and yield response factor in shallow soils of semi-arid environment. Agric. Water Manage. 97:965-970. doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2010.01.028
118. Solomon, K.H. 1984. Yield related interpretations of irrigation uniformity and efficiency measures. Irrig. Sci. 5:161-172. doi:10.1007/BF00264605
119. Solomon, K.H. 1993. Technical memorandum. Ctr. Irrig. Technol., California State Univ., Fresno, CA.
120. Solomon, K.H., and C.M. Burt. 1999. Irrigation sagacity: A measure of prudent water use. Irrig. Sci. 18:135-140. doi:10.1007/s002710050054
121. Stern, J., and E. Bresler. 1983. Nonuniform sprinkler irrigation and crop yield. Irrig. Sci. 4:17-29. doi:10.1007/BF00285554
122. Svendsen, M., and L.E. Small. 1990. Farmer's perspective on irrigation performance. Irrig. Drain. Syst. 4:385-402. doi:10.1007/BF01103716
123. Tanner, C.B., and T.R. Sinclair. 1983. Efficient water use in crop production: Research or re-research? In: H.M. Taylor et al., editors, Limitations to efficient water use in crop production. ASA, CSSA, and SSSA, Madison, WI.
124. Tennakoon, S.B., and S.P. Milroy. 2003. Crop water use and water use efficiency on irrigated cotton farms in Australia. Agric. Water Manage. 61:179-194. doi:10.1016/S0378-3774(03)00023-4
125. Tennant, D., and D. Hall. 2001. Improving water use of annual crops and pastures: Limitations and opportunities in Western Australia. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 52:171-182. doi:10.1071/AR00005
126. Tolk, J.A., T.A. Howell, J.L. Steiner, D.R. Krieg, and A.D. Schneider. 1995. Role of transpiration suppression by evaporation of intercepted water in improving irrigation efficiency. Irrig. Sci. 16:89-95. doi:10.1007/BF00189165
127. U.N. Department of Internal Economics and Social Affairs. 1992. Long-range world population projections: Two centuries of population growth 1950-2150. Publ. ST/ESA/SER.A/125. United Nations Publ., New York.
128. Wallace, J.S. 2000. Increasing agricultural water use efficiency to meet future food production. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 82:105-119. doi:10.1016/S0167-8809(00)00220-6
129. Wallace, J.S., and C.H. Batchelor. 1997. Managing water resources for crop production. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. B 352:937-947. doi:10.1098/rstb.1997.0073
130. Wang, Z., D. Zerihum, and J. Feyen. 1996. General irrigation efficiency for field water management. Agric. Water Manage. 30:123-132. doi:10.1016/0378-3774(95)01221-4
131. Wanjura, D.F., D.R. Upchurch, and J.R. Mahan. 2000. Yield and applied water relationship in multi-year drip irrigated cotton production. In: P. Dugger and D. Richter, editors, Proceedings of the Beltwide Cotton Conference, San Antonio, TX. 4-8 Jan. 2000. Vol. 1. Natl. Cotton Council, Memphis, TN. p. 442-448.
132. Ward, F.A., and A. Michelsen. 2002. The economic value of water in agriculture: Concepts and policy applications. Water Policy 4:423-446. doi:10.1016/S1366-7017(02)00039-9
133. Whelan, B.M., and A.B. McBratney. 2000. The null hypothesis of precision agriculture management. Precis. Agric. 2:265-279. doi:10.1023/A:1011838806489
134. Wilcox, J.C., and G.E. Swailes. 1947. Analysis of surface irrigation application efficiency. Sci. Agric. 27:565-583.
135. Willardson, L. 1972. Attainable irrigation efficiencies. J. Irrig. Drain. Div. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 98:239-246.
136. Willardson, L. 1985. Basin-wide impacts of irrigation efficiency. J. Irrig. Drain. Eng. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. 111:241-246. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9437(1985)111:3(241)
137. Willardson, L.S., R.G. Allen, and H.D. Frederiksen. 1994. Universal fractions and the elimination of irrigation efficiencies. Paper presented at the 13th Technical Conference of the United States Committee on Irrigation and Drainage, Denver, CO. 19-22 Oct. 1994.
138. Wittwer, S.H. 1975. Food production: Technology and the resource base. Science 188:578-584. doi:10.1126/science.188.4188.578
139. Wolters, W., and M.G. Bos. 1990. Interrelationship between irrigation efficiency and the re-use of drainage water. In: H.M. Amer, editor, Land drainage for salinity control in arid and semi-arid regions: Proceedings of the Symposium, Cairo, Egypt. 25 Feb.-2 Mar. 1990. Vol. 3. Drain. Res. Inst., Water Res. Ctr., Cairo. p. 237-245.
140. Young, R.A. 2004. Determining the economic value of water: Concepts and methods. Resources for the Future, Washington, DC.