Neural and behavioral endophenotypes in ADHD

Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences

Volumn 11, Issue , 2012, Pages 65-91

  del Campo, Natalia ^a   Müller, Ulrich ^a   Sahakian, Barbara J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

ADHD; Dopamine; Endophenotypes; Magnetic resonance imaging; Positronemission tomography

Indexed keywords

CATECHOL METHYLTRANSFERASE; DOPAMINE 4 RECEPTOR; DOPAMINE 5 RECEPTOR; METHYLPHENIDATE; DOPAMINE;

ARTICLE; ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER; COGNITION; DIFFUSION TENSOR IMAGING; ENDOPHENOTYPE; GENETICS; HUMAN; NEUROIMAGING; NEUROPSYCHOLOGY; NONHUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHIATRY; SINGLE PHOTON EMISSION COMPUTER TOMOGRAPHY; SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION; BRAIN; METABOLISM; PATHOLOGY; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; SCINTISCANNING;

ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER WITH HYPERACTIVITY; BRAIN; DOPAMINE; ENDOPHENOTYPES; HUMANS; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; POSITRON-EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY;

EID: 84874932753     PISSN: 18663370     EISSN: 18663389     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1007/7854_2012_200     Document Type: Article

References (163)

1. 3 receptors: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled PET study with [11C]FLB 457 in healthy subjects. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 36: 475-483
2. Ackermann H, Graber S, Hertrich I, Daum I (1999) Cerebellar contributions to the perception of temporal cues within the speech and nonspeech domain. Brain Lang 67: 228-241
3. Advokat C (2010) What are the cognitive effects of stimulant medications? Emphasis on adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Neurosci Biobehav Rev 34: 1256-1266
4. Ahrendts J, Rusch N, Wilke M, Philipsen A, Eickhoff SB, Glauche V, Perlov E, Ebert D, Hennig J, van Elst LT (2011) Visual cortex abnormalities in adults with ADHD: a structural MRI study. World J Biol Psychiatry 12: 260-270
5. Almasy L, Blangero J (2001) Endophenotypes as quantitative risk factors for psychiatric disease: rationale and study design. Am J Med Genet 105: 42-44
6. Almeida Montes LG, Ricardo-Garcell J, Martinez Garcia RB, Barajas De La Torre LB, Prado Alcantara H, Fernandez-Bouzas A, Avila Acosta D (2010) Clinical correlations of grey matter reductions in the caudate nucleus of adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Psychiatry Neurosci 35: 238-246
7. Amico F, Stauber J, Koutsouleris N, Frodl T (2011) Anterior cingulate cortex gray matter abnormalities in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a voxel-based morphometry study. Psychiatry Res 191: 31-35
8. Arnsten AF, Goldman-Rakic PS (1998) Noise stress impairs prefrontal cortical cognitive function in monkeys: evidence for a hyperdopaminergic mechanism. Arch Gen Psychiatry 55: 362-368
9. Assaf Y, Pasternak O (2008) Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)-based white matter mapping in brain research: a review. J Mol Neurosci 34: 51-61
10. Barkley RA (1997) Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychol Bull 121: 65-94
11. Barkley RA (1998) Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment (2nd ed.). The Guildford Press, The Guildford Press, New York
12. Biederman J (2005) Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a selective overview. Biol Psychiatry 57: 1215-1220
13. Biederman J, Faraone SV, Keenan K, Knee D, Tsuang MT (1990) Family-genetic and psychosocial risk factors in DSM-III attention deficit disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 29: 526-533
14. Biederman J, Mick E, Faraone SV (2000) Age-dependent decline of symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: impact of remission definition and symptom type. Am J Psychiatry 157: 816-818
15. Biederman J, Monuteaux MC, Mick E, Spencer T, Wilens TE, Silva JM, Snyder LE, Faraone SV (2006) Young adult outcome of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a controlled 10-year follow-up study. Psychol Med 36: 167-179
16. Breier A, Su TP, Saunders R, Carson RE, Kolachana BS, de Bartolomeis A, Weinberger DR, Weisenfeld N, Malhotra AK, Eckelman WC, Pickar D (1997) Schizophrenia is associated with elevated amphetamine-induced synaptic dopamine concentrations: evidence from a novel positron emission tomography method. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94: 2569-2574
17. Brieber S, Neufang S, Bruning N, Kamp-Becker I, Remschmidt H, Herpertz-Dahlmann B, Fink GR, Konrad K (2007) Structural brain abnormalities in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder and patients with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 48: 1251-1258
18. Brookes K, Xu X, Chen W, Zhou K, Neale B, Lowe N, Anney R, Franke B, Gill M, Ebstein R, Buitelaar J, Sham P, Campbell D, Knight J, Andreou P, Altink M, Arnold R, Boer F, Buschgens C, Butler L, Christiansen H, Feldman L, Fleischman K, Fliers E, Howe-Forbes R, Goldfarb A, Heise A, Gabriels I, Korn-Lubetzki I, Johansson L, Marco R, Medad S, Minderaa R, Mulas F, Muller U, Mulligan A, Rabin K, Rommelse N, Sethna V, Sorohan J, Uebel H, Psychogiou L, Weeks A, Barrett R, Craig I, Banaschewski T, Sonuga-Barke E, Eisenberg J, Kuntsi J, Manor I, McGuffin P, Miranda A, Oades RD, Plomin R, Roeyers H, Rothenberger A, Sergeant J, Steinhausen HC, Taylor E, Thompson M, Faraone SV, Asherson P (2006) The analysis of 51 genes in DSM-IV combined type attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: association signals in DRD4, DAT1 and 16 other genes. Mol Psychiatry 11: 934-953
19. Burd L, Klug MG, Coumbe MJ, Kerbeshian J (2003) Children and adolescents with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder: 1. Prevalence and cost of care. J Child Neurol 18: 555-561
20. Bush G, Valera EM, Seidman LJ (2005) Functional neuroimaging of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a review and suggested future directions. Biol Psychiatry 57: 1273-1284
21. Bymaster FP, Katner JS, Nelson DL, Hemrick-Luecke SK, Threlkeld PG, Heiligenstein JH, Morin SM, Gehlert DR, Perry KW (2002) Atomoxetine increases extracellular levels of norepinephrine and dopamine in prefrontal cortex of rat: a potential mechanism for efficacy in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 27: 699-711
22. Carmona S, Vilarroya O, Bielsa A, Tremols V, Soliva JC, Rovira M, Tomas J, Raheb C, Gispert JD, Batlle S, Bulbena A (2005) Global and regional gray matter reductions in ADHD: a voxel-based morphometric study. Neurosci Lett 389: 88-93
23. Casey BJ, Epstein JN, Buhle J, Liston C, Davidson MC, Tonev ST, Spicer J, Niogi S, Millner AJ, Reiss A, Garrett A, Hinshaw SP, Greenhill LL, Shafritz KM, Vitolo A, Kotler LA, Jarrett MA, Glover G (2007) Frontostriatal connectivity and its role in cognitive control in parent-child dyads with ADHD. Am J Psychiatry 164: 1729-1736
24. Castellanos FX, Lee PP, Sharp W, Jeffries NO, Greenstein DK, Clasen LS, Blumenthal JD, James RS, Ebens CL, Walter JM, Zijdenbos A, Evans AC, Giedd JN, Rapoport JL (2002) Developmental trajectories of brain volume abnormalities in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Jama 288: 1740-1748
25. Castellanos FX, Sonuga Barke EJ, Milham MP, Tannock R (2006) Characterizing cognition in ADHD: beyond executive dysfunction. Trends Cogn Sci 10: 117-123
26. Castellanos FX, Tannock R (2002) Neuroscience of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: the search for endophenotypes. Nat Rev Neurosci 3: 617-628
27. Castells X, Ramos-Quiroga JA, Bosch R, Nogueira M, Casas M (2011a) Amphetamines for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev: CD007813
28. Castells X, Ramos-Quiroga JA, Rigau D, Bosch R, Nogueira M, Vidal X, Casas M (2011b) Efficacy of methylphenidate for adults with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a metaregression analysis. CNS Drugs 25: 157-169
29. Chamberlain SR, Robbins TW, Winder-Rhodes S, Muller U, Sahakian BJ, Blackwell AD, Barnett JH (2010) Translational approaches to frontostriatal dysfunction in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder using a computerized neuropsychological battery. Biol Psychiatry 64(2): 137-144
30. Cheon KA, Ryu YH, Kim YK, Namkoong K, Kim CH, Lee JD (2003) Dopamine transporter density in the basal ganglia assessed with [123I]IPT SPET in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 30: 306-311
31. Chudasama Y, Nathwani F, Robbins TW (2005) D-Amphetamine remediates attentional performance in rats with dorsal prefrontal lesions. Behav Brain Res 158: 97-107
32. Chudasama Y, Robbins TW (2004) Psychopharmacological approaches to modulating attention in the five-choice serial reaction time task: implications for schizophrenia. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 174: 86-98
33. Clark L, Blackwell AD, Aron AR, Turner DC, Dowson J, Robbins TW, Sahakian BJ (2007) Association between response inhibition and working memory in adult ADHD: a link to right frontal cortex pathology? Biol Psychiatry 61: 1395-1401
34. Clatworthy PL, Lewis SJ, Brichard L, Hong YT, Izquierdo D, Clark L, Cools R, Aigbirhio FI, Baron JC, Fryer TD, Robbins TW (2009) Dopamine release in dissociable striatal subregions predicts the different effects of oral methylphenidate on reversal learning and spatial working memory. J Neurosci 29: 4690-4696
35. Collins P, Roberts AC, Dias R, Everitt BJ, Robbins TW (1998) Perseveration and strategy in a novel spatial self-ordered sequencing task for nonhuman primates: effects of excitotoxic lesions and dopamine depletions of the prefrontal cortex. J Cogn Neurosci 10: 332-354
36. Cook EH Jr, Stein MA, Krasowski MD, Cox NJ, Olkon DM, Kieffer JE, Leventhal BL (1995) Association of attention-deficit disorder and the dopamine transporter gene. Am J Hum Genet 56: 993-998
37. Cools R, Barker RA, Sahakian BJ, Robbins TW (2001) Enhanced or impaired cognitive function in Parkinson's disease as a function of dopaminergic medication and task demands. Cereb Cortex 11: 1136-1143
38. Cropley VL, Innis RB, Nathan PJ, Brown AK, Sangare JL, Lerner A, Ryu YH, Sprague KE, Pike VW, Fujita M (2008) Small effect of dopamine release and no effect of dopamine depletion on [18F]fallypride binding in healthy humans. Synapse 62: 399-408
39. Del Campo N, Acosta-Cabronero J, Suckling J, Chamberlain SR, Dowson J, Robbins TW, Sahakian BJ, Muller U (submitted) Distributed neuroanatomical abnormalities and attentional deficits in adult ADHD. Biol Psychiatry
40. Del Campo N, Chamberlain SR, Sahakian BJ, Robbins TW (2011) The roles of dopamine and noradrenaline in the pathophysiology and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry 69: e145-e157
41. Depue BE, Burgess GC, Bidwell LC, Willcutt EG, Banich MT (2010) Behavioral performance predicts grey matter reductions in the right inferior frontal gyrus in young adults with combined type ADHD. Psychiatry Res 182: 231-237
42. DeVito EE, Blackwell AD, Clark L, Kent L, Dezsery AM, Turner DC, Aitken MR, Sahakian BJ (2009) Methylphenidate improves response inhibition but not reflection-impulsivity in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Psychopharmacology (Berl) 202: 531-539
43. Dodds CM, Muller U, Clark L, van Loon A, Cools R, Robbins TW (2008) Methylphenidate has differential effects on blood oxygenation level-dependent signal related to cognitive subprocesses of reversal learning. J Neurosci 28: 5976-5982
44. Dougherty DD, Bonab AA, Spencer TJ, Rauch SL, Madras BK, Fischman AJ (1999) Dopamine transporter density in patients with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Lancet 354: 2132-2133
45. Doyle AE, Willcutt EG, Seidman LJ, Biederman J, Chouinard VA, Silva J, Faraone SV (2005) Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder endophenotypes. Biol Psychiatry 57: 1324-1335
46. Dresel S, Krause J, Krause KH, LaFougere C, Brinkbaumer K, Kung HF, Hahn K, Tatsch K (2000) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: binding of [99mTc]TRODAT-1 to the dopamine transporter before and after methylphenidate treatment. Eur J Nucl Med 27: 1518-1524
47. Durston S (2008) Converging methods in studying attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: what can we learn from neuroimaging and genetics? Dev Psychopathol 20: 1133-1143
48. Elliott R, Sahakian BJ, Matthews K, Bannerjea A, Rimmer J, Robbins TW (1997) Effects of methylphenidate on spatial working memory and planning in healthy young adults. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 131: 196-206
49. Ernst M, Zametkin AJ, Matochik JA, Jons PH, Cohen RM (1998) DOPA decarboxylase activity in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder adults. A [fluorine-18]fluorodopa positron emission tomographic study. J Neurosci 18: 5901-5907
50. Ernst M, Zametkin AJ, Matochik JA, Pascualvaca D, Jons PH, Cohen RM (1999) High midbrain [18F]DOPA accumulation in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry 156: 1209-1215
51. Faraone SV, Biederman J (2005) What is the prevalence of adult ADHD? Results of a population screen of 966 adults. J Atten Disord 9: 384-391
52. Faraone SV, Biederman J, Spencer T, Michelson D, Adler L, Reimherr F, Glatt SJ (2005) Efficacy of atomoxetine in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a drug-placebo response curve analysis. Behav Brain Funct 1: 16
53. Faraone SV, Buitelaar J (2010) Comparing the efficacy of stimulants for ADHD in children and adolescents using meta-analysis. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 19: 353-364
54. Faraone SV, Glatt SJ (2010) A comparison of the efficacy of medications for adult attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder using meta-analysis of effect sizes. J Clin Psychiatry 71: 754-763
55. Faraone SV, Sergeant J, Gillberg C, Biederman J (2003) The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: is it an American condition? World Psychiatry 2: 104-113
56. Finke K, Dodds CM, Bublak P, Regenthal R, Baumann F, Manly T, Muller U (2010) Effects of modafinil and methylphenidate on visual attention capacity: a TVA-based study. Psychopharmacology (Berl)
57. Ford T, Goodman R, Meltzer H (2003) The British Child and Adolescent Mental Health Survey 1999: the prevalence of DSM-IV disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 42: 1203-1211
58. Forssberg H, Fernell E, Waters S, Waters N, Tedroff J (2006) Altered pattern of brain dopamine synthesis in male adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Behav Brain Funct 2: 40
59. Franke B, Faraone SV, Asherson P, Buitelaar J, Bau CH, Ramos-Quiroga JA, Mick E, Grevet EH, Johansson S, Haavik J, Lesch KP, Cormand B, Reif A (2011) The genetics of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adults, a review. Mol Psychiatry 34(11): 1061-1077
60. Franke B, Neale BM, Faraone SV (2009) Genome-wide association studies in ADHD. Hum Genet 126: 13-50
61. Frodl T, Skokauskas N (2011) Meta-analysis of structural MRI studies in children and adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder indicates treatment effects. Acta Psychiatr Scand 124(6): 497
62. Froehlich TE, McGough JJ, Stein MA (2010) Progress and promise of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder pharmacogenetics. CNS Drugs 24: 99-117
63. Gill M, Daly G, Heron S, Hawi Z, Fitzgerald M (1997) Confirmation of association between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and a dopamine transporter polymorphism. Mol Psychiatry 2: 311-313
64. Gizer IR, Ficks C, Waldman ID (2009) Candidate gene studies of ADHD: a meta-analytic review. Hum Genet 126: 51-90
65. Gottesman II, Gould TD (2003) The endophenotype concept in psychiatry: etymology and strategic intentions. Am J Psychiatry 160: 636-645
66. Greenhill LL, Biederman J, Boellner SW, Rugino TA, Sangal RB, Earl CQ, Jiang JG, Swanson JM (2006) A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of modafinil filmcoated tablets in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 45: 503-511
67. Gupta R, Kar BR, Srinivasan N (2011) Cognitive-motivational deficits in ADHD: development of a classification system. Child Neuropsychol 17: 67-81
68. Hesse S, Ballaschke O, Barthel H, Sabri O (2009) Dopamine transporter imaging in adult patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatry Res 171: 120-128
69. Hesslinger B, Tebartz van Elst L, Mochan F, Ebert D (2003) A psychopathological study into the relationship between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adult patients and recurrent brief depression. Acta Psychiatr Scand 107: 385-389
70. Ilgin N, Senol S, Gucuyener K, Gokcora N, Sener S (2001) Is increased D2 receptor availability associated with response to stimulant medication in ADHD. Dev Med Child Neurol 43: 755-760
71. Jucaite A, Fernell E, Halldin C, Forssberg H, Farde L (2005) Reduced midbrain dopamine transporter binding in male adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: association between striatal dopamine markers and motor hyperactivity. Biol Psychiatry 57: 229-238
72. Jueptner M, Rijntjes M, Weiller C, Faiss JH, Timmann D, Mueller SP, Diener HC (1995) Localization of a cerebellar timing process using PET. Neurology 45: 1540-1545
73. Kessler RC, Adler L, Barkley R, Biederman J, Conners CK, Demler O, Faraone SV, Greenhill LL, Howes MJ, Secnik K, Spencer T, Ustun TB, Walters EE, Zaslavsky AM (2006) The prevalence and correlates of adult ADHD in the United States: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Am J Psychiatry 163: 716-723
74. Kim CH, Hahn MK, Joung Y, Anderson SL, Steele AH, Mazei-Robinson MS, Gizer I, Teicher MH, Cohen BM, Robertson D, Waldman ID, Blakely RD, Kim KS (2006) A polymorphism in the norepinephrine transporter gene alters promoter activity and is associated with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103: 19164-19169
75. Koelega HS (1993) Stimulant drugs and vigilance performance: a review. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 111: 1-16
76. Konrad K, Eickhoff SB (2010) Is the ADHD brain wired differently? A review on structural and functional connectivity in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Hum Brain Mapp 31: 904-916
77. Krause J (2008) SPECT and PET of the dopamine transporter in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Expert Rev Neurother 8: 611-625
78. Krause KH, Dresel SH, Krause J, Kung HF, TatschK(2000) Increased striatal dopamine transporter in adult patients with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: effects of methylphenidate as measured by single photon emission computed tomography. Neurosci Lett 285: 107-110
79. Kuczenski R, Segal DS (1975) Differential effects of D-and L-amphetamine and methylphenidate on rat striatal dopamine biosynthesis. Eur J Pharmacol 30: 244-251
80. Kuntsi J, McLoughlin G, Asherson P (2006a) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neuromolecular Med 8: 461-484
81. Kuntsi J, Neale BM, Chen W, Faraone SV, Asherson P (2006b) The IMAGE project: methodological issues for the molecular genetic analysis of ADHD. Behav Brain Funct 2: 27
82. la Fougere C (2006) Value of 99mTc-TRODAT-1 SPECT to predict clinical response to methylphenidate treatment in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Nucl Medicine commun 27: 733-734
83. LaHoste GJ, Swanson JM, Wigal SB, Glabe C, Wigal T, King N, Kennedy JL (1996) Dopamine D4 receptor gene polymorphism is associated with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Mol Psychiatry 1: 121-124
84. Larisch R, Sitte W, Antke C, Nikolaus S, Franz M, Tress W, Muller HW (2006) Striatal dopamine transporter density in drug naive patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Nucl Med Commun 27: 267-270
85. Laruelle M (2000) Imaging synaptic neurotransmission with in vivo binding competition techniques: a critical review. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 20: 423-451
86. Laruelle M, Iyer RN, al-Tikriti MS, Zea-Ponce Y, Malison R, Zoghbi SS, Baldwin RM, Kung HF, Charney DS, Hoffer PB, Innis RB, Bradberry CW (1997) Microdialysis and SPECT measurements of amphetamine-induced dopamine release in nonhuman primates. Synapse 25: 1-14
87. Liston C, Cohen MM, Teslovich T, Levenson D, Casey BJ (2011) Atypical prefrontal connectivity in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: pathway to disease or pathological end point? Biol Psychiatry 69: 1168-1177
88. Ludolph AG, Kassubek J, Schmeck K, Glaser C, Wunderlich A, Buck AK, Reske SN, Fegert JM, Mottaghy FM (2008) Dopaminergic dysfunction in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), differences between pharmacologically treated and never treated young adults: a 3, 4-dihdroxy-6-[18F]fluorophenyl-L-alanine PET study. Neuroimage 41: 718-727
89. Luman M, Oosterlaan J, Sergeant JA (2005) The impact of reinforcement contingencies on AD/HD: a review and theoretical appraisal. Clin Psychol Rev 25: 183-213
90. Mackie S, Shaw P, Lenroot R, Pierson R, Greenstein DK, Nugent TF 3rd, Sharp WS, Giedd JN, Rapoport JL (2007) Cerebellar development and clinical outcome in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry 164: 647-655
91. Madras BK, Fischman AJ, Meltzer PC (2006) Methods for diagnosing and monitoring treatment ADHD by assessing the dopamine transporter level. In: Office UP (ed), US
92. Madras BK, Miller GM, Fischman AJ (2002) The dopamine transporter: relevance to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Behav Brain Res 130: 57-63
93. Makris N, Biederman J, Valera EM, Bush G, Kaiser J, Kennedy DN, Caviness VS, Faraone SV, Seidman LJ (2007) Cortical thinning of the attention and executive function networks in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Cereb Cortex 17: 1364-1375
94. Makris N, Seidman LJ, Valera EM, Biederman J, Monuteaux MC, Kennedy DN, Caviness VS Jr, Bush G, Crum K, Brown AB, Faraone SV (2010) Anterior cingulate volumetric alterations in treatment-naive adults with ADHD: a pilot study. J Atten Disord 13: 407-413
95. Mannuzza S, Klein RG, Bonagura N, Malloy P, Giampino TL, Addalli KA (1991) Hyperactive boys almost grown up. V. Replication of psychiatric status. Arch Gen Psychiatry 48: 77-83
96. Maquet P, Lejeune H, Pouthas V, Bonnet M, Casini L, Macar F, Timsit-Berthier M, Vidal F, Ferrara A, Degueldre C, Quaglia L, Delfiore G, Luxen A, Woods R, Mazziotta JC, Comar D (1996) Brain activation induced by estimation of duration: a PET study. Neuroimage 3: 119-126
97. Martinez D, Slifstein M, Broft A, Mawlawi O, Hwang DR, Huang Y, Cooper T, Kegeles L, Zarahn E, Abi-Dargham A, Haber SN, Laruelle M (2003) Imaging human mesolimbic dopamine transmission with positron emission tomography. Part II: amphetamine-induced dopamine release in the functional subdivisions of the striatum. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 23: 285-300
98. Mattay VS, Berman KF, Ostrem JL, Esposito G, Van Horn JD, Bigelow LB, Weinberger DR (1996) Dextroamphetamine enhances ''neural network-specific'' physiological signals: a positron-emission tomography rCBF study. J Neurosci 16: 4816-4822
99. Mattay VS, Callicott JH, Bertolino A, Heaton I, Frank JA, Coppola R, Berman KF, Goldberg TE, Weinberger DR (2000) Effects of dextroamphetamine on cognitive performance and cortical activation. Neuroimage 12: 268-275
100. Mattay VS, Goldberg TE, Fera F, Hariri AR, Tessitore A, Egan MF, Kolachana B, Callicott JH, Weinberger DR (2003) Catechol O-methyltransferase val158-met genotype and individual variation in the brain response to amphetamine. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100: 6186-6191
101. Mawlawi O, Martinez D, Slifstein M, Broft A, Chatterjee R, Hwang DR, Huang Y, Simpson N, Ngo K, Van Heertum R, Laruelle M (2001) Imaging human mesolimbic dopamine transmission with positron emission tomography: I. Accuracy and precision of D(2) receptor parameter measurements in ventral striatum. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 21: 1034-1057
102. McGough JJ, Smalley SL, McCracken JT, Yang M, Del'Homme M, Lynn DE, Loo S (2005) Psychiatric comorbidity in adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: findings from multiplex families. Am J Psychiatry 162: 1621-1627
103. Mehta MA, Goodyer IM, Sahakian BJ (2004) Methylphenidate improves working memory and set-shifting in AD/HD: relationships to baseline memory capacity. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 45: 293-305
104. Mehta MA, Owen AM, Sahakian BJ, Mavaddat N, Pickard JD, Robbins TW (2000) Methylphenidate enhances working memory by modulating discrete frontal and parietal lobe regions in the human brain. J Neurosci 20: RC65
105. Minzenberg MJ, Carter CS (2008) Modafinil: a review of neurochemical actions and effects on cognition. Neuropsychopharmacology 33: 1477-1502
106. Molina BS, Hinshaw SP, Swanson JM, Arnold LE, Vitiello B, Jensen PS, Epstein JN, Hoza B, Hechtman L, Abikoff HB, Elliott GR, Greenhill LL, Newcorn JH, Wells KC, Wigal T, Gibbons RD, Hur K, Houck PR (2009) The MTA at 8 years: prospective follow-up of children treated for combined-type ADHD in a multisite study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 48: 484-500
107. Montgomery AJ, Asselin MC, Farde L, Grasby PM (2007) Measurement of methylphenidateinduced change in extrastriatal dopamine concentration using [11C]FLB 457 PET. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 27: 369-377
108. Murphy K, Barkley RA (1996) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder adults: comorbidities and adaptive impairments. Compr Psychiatry 37: 393-401
109. Nakao T, Radua J, Rubia K, Mataix-Cols D (2011) Gray matter volume abnormalities in ADHD: Voxel-Based meta-analysis exploring the effects of age and stimulant medication. Am J Psychiatry
110. Naylor H, Halliday R, Callaway E (1985) The effect of methylphenidate on information processing. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 86: 90-95
111. Nigg JT (2005) Neuropsychologic theory and findings in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: the state of the field and salient challenges for the coming decade. Biol Psychiatry 57: 1424-1435
112. Paloyelis Y, Mehta MA, Kuntsi J, Asherson P (2007) Functional MRI in ADHD: a systematic literature review. Expert Rev Neurother 7: 1337-1356
113. Pennington BF, Ozonoff S (1996) Executive functions and developmental psychopathology. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 37: 51-87
114. Perlov E, Philipsen A, Tebartz van Elst L, Ebert D, Henning J, Maier S, Bubl E, Hesslinger B (2008) Hippocampus and amygdala morphology in adults with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Psychiatry Neurosci 33: 509-515
115. Pietrzak RH, Mollica CM, Maruff P, Snyder PJ (2006) Cognitive effects of immediate-release methylphenidate in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 30: 1225-1245
116. Plomp E, Van Engeland H, Durston S (2009) Understanding genes, environment and their interaction in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: is there a role for neuroimaging? Neuroscience 164: 230-240
117. Rapoport JL, Buchsbaum MS, Weingartner H, Zahn TP, Ludlow C, Mikkelsen EJ (1980) Dextroamphetamine. Its cognitive and behavioral effects in normal and hyperactive boys and normal men. Arch Gen Psychiatry 37: 933-943
118. Rapoport JL, Buchsbaum MS, Zahn TP, Weingartner H, Ludlow C, Mikkelsen EJ (1978) Dextroamphetamine: cognitive and behavioral effects in normal prepubertal boys. Science 199: 560-563
119. Rhodes SM, Coghill DR, Matthews K (2006) Acute neuropsychological effects of methylphenidate in stimulant drug-naive boys with ADHD II-broader executive and non-executive domains. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 47: 1184-1194
120. Riccardi P, Li R, Ansari MS, Zald D, Park S, Dawant B, Anderson S, Doop M, Woodward N, Schoenberg E, Schmidt D, Baldwin R, Kessler R (2006a) Amphetamine-induced displacement of [18F] fallypride in striatum and extrastriatal regions in humans. Neuropsychopharmacology 31: 1016-1026
121. Riccardi P, Zald D, Li R, Park S, Ansari MS, Dawant B, Anderson S, Woodward N, Schmidt D, Baldwin R, Kessler R (2006b) Sex differences in amphetamine-induced displacement of [(18)F]fallypride in striatal and extrastriatal regions: a PET study. Am J Psychiatry 163: 1639-1641
122. Richards TL, Deffenbacher JL, Rosen LA, Barkley RA, Rodricks T (2006) Driving anger and driving behavior in adults with ADHD. J Atten Disord 10: 54-64
123. Robbins TW (2010) From Behavior to Cognition: Functions of Mesostriatal, Mesolimbic and Mesocortical Dopamine Systems. In: Iversen LL, Iversen SD, Dunnett SB, Bjorklund A (eds) Dopamine Handbook. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 203-214
124. Robbins TW, Sahakian BJ (1979) ''Paradoxical'' effects of psychomotor stimulant drugs in hyperactive children from the standpoint of behavioural pharmacology. Neuropharmacology 18: 931-950
125. Roberts AC, De Salvia MA, Wilkinson LS, Collins P, Muir JL, Everitt BJ, Robbins TW (1994) 6-Hydroxydopamine lesions of the prefrontal cortex in monkeys enhance performance on an analog of the Wisconsin Card Sort Test: possible interactions with subcortical dopamine. J Neurosci 14: 2531-2544
126. Rogers RD, Blackshaw AJ, Middleton HC, Matthews K, Hawtin K, Crowley C, Hopwood A, Wallace C, Deakin JF, Sahakian BJ, Robbins TW (1999) Tryptophan depletion impairs stimulus-reward learning while methylphenidate disrupts attentional control in healthy young adults: implications for the monoaminergic basis of impulsive behaviour. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 146: 482-491
127. Rosa-Neto P, Lou HC, Cumming P, Pryds O, Karrebaek H, Lunding J, Gjedde A (2005) Methylphenidate-evoked changes in striatal dopamine correlate with inattention and impulsivity in adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neuroimage 25: 868-876
128. Rosa-Neto P, Lou H, Cumming P, Pryds O, Gjedde A (2002) Methylphenidate-evoked potentiation of extracellular dopamine in the brain of adolescents with premature birth: correlation with attentional deficit. Ann N Y Acad Sci 965: 434-439
129. Rubia K, Smith A (2004) The neural correlates of cognitive time management: a review. Acta Neurobiol Exp (Wars) 64: 329-340
130. Rubia K, Smith A, Taylor E (2007) Performance of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) on a test battery of impulsiveness. Child Neuropsychol 13: 276-304
131. Sahakian BJ, Robbins TW (1977) Are the effects of psychomotor stimulant drugs on hyperactive children really paradoxical? Med Hypotheses 3: 154-158
132. Seidman LJ, Valera EM, Makris N (2005) Structural brain imaging of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry 57: 1263-1272
133. Seidman LJ, Valera EM, Makris N, Monuteaux MC, Boriel DL, Kelkar K, Kennedy DN, Caviness VS, Bush G, Aleardi M, Faraone SV, Biederman J (2006) Dorsolateral prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortex volumetric abnormalities in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder identified by magnetic resonance imaging. Biol Psychiatry 60: 1071-1080
134. Shaw P, Eckstrand K, Sharp W, Blumenthal J, Lerch JP, Greenstein D, Clasen L, Evans A, Giedd J, Rapoport JL (2007) Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is characterized by a delay in cortical maturation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104: 19649-19654
135. Shaw P, Lerch J, Greenstein D, Sharp W, Clasen L, Evans A, Giedd J, Castellanos FX, Rapoport J (2006) Longitudinal mapping of cortical thickness and clinical outcome in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 63: 540-549
136. Slifstein M, Kegeles LS, Xu X, Thompson JL, Urban N, Castrillon J, Hackett E, Bae SA, Laruelle M, Abi-Dargham A (2010) Striatal and extrastriatal dopamine release measured with PET and [(18)F] fallypride. Synapse 64: 350-362
137. Smith A, Taylor E, Lidzba K, Rubia K (2003) A right hemispheric frontocerebellar network for time discrimination of several hundreds of milliseconds. Neuroimage 20: 344-350
138. Smith ME, Farah MJ (2011) Are prescription stimulants ''smart pills''? The epidemiology and cognitive neuroscience of prescription stimulant use by normal healthy individuals. Psychol Bull 137: 717-741
139. Solanto MV (2001) Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Oxford University Press, Oxford
140. Sonuga-Barke EJ (2003) The dual pathway model of AD/HD: an elaboration of neurodevelopmental characteristics. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 27: 593-604
141. Sowell ER, Thompson PM, Welcome SE, Henkenius AL, Toga AW, Peterson BS (2003) Cortical abnormalities in children and adolescents with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Lancet 362: 1699-1707
142. Spencer TJ, Adler LA, McGough JJ, Muniz R, Jiang H, Pestreich L (2007) Efficacy and safety of dexmethylphenidate extended-release capsules in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry 61: 1380-1387
143. Spencer TJ, Biederman J, Madras BK, Faraone SV, Dougherty DD, Bonab AA, Fischman AJ (2005) In vivo neuroreceptor imaging in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a focus on the dopamine transporter. Biol Psychiatry 57: 1293-1300
144. Strauss J, Lewis JL, Klorman R, Peloquin LJ, Perlmutter RA, Salzman LF (1984) Effects of methylphenidate on young adults' performance and event-related potentials in a vigilance and a paired-associates learning test. Psychophysiology 21: 609-621
145. Swainson R, Rogers RD, Sahakian BJ, Summers BA, Polkey CE, Robbins TW (2000) Probabilistic learning and reversal deficits in patients with Parkinson's disease or frontal or temporal lobe lesions: possible adverse effects of dopaminergic medication. Neuropsychologia 38: 596-612
146. Swanson J, Baler RD, Volkow ND (2011a) Understanding the effects of stimulant medications on cognition in individuals with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a decade of progress. Neuropsychopharmacology 36: 207-226
147. Swanson JM, Sunohara GA, Kennedy JL, Regino R, Fineberg E, Wigal T, Lerner M, Williams L, LaHoste GJ, Wigal S (1998) Association of the dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) gene with a refined phenotype of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a family-based approach. Mol Psychiatry 3: 38-41
148. Swanson JM, Wigal TL, Volkow ND (2011b) Contrast of medical and nonmedical use of stimulant drugs, basis for the distinction, and risk of addiction: comment on Smith and Farah (2011). Psychol Bull 137: 742-748
149. Turner DC, Blackwell AD, Dowson JH, McLean A, Sahakian BJ (2005) Neurocognitive effects of methylphenidate in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 178: 286-295
150. Turner DC, Robbins TW, Clark L, Aron AR, Dowson J, Sahakian BJ (2003) Relative lack of cognitive effects of methylphenidate in elderly male volunteers. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 168: 455-464
151. Vaidya CJ, Bunge SA, Dudukovic NM, Zalecki CA, Elliott GR, Gabrieli JD (2005) Altered neural substrates of cognitive control in childhood ADHD: evidence from functional magnetic resonance imaging. Am J Psychiatry 162: 1605-1613
152. van 't Ent D, Lehn H, Derks EM, Hudziak JJ, Van Strien NM, Veltman DJ, De Geus EJ, Todd RD, Boomsma DI (2007) A structural MRI study in monozygotic twins concordant or discordant for attention/hyperactivity problems: evidence for genetic and environmental heterogeneity in the developing brain. Neuroimage 35: 1004-1020
153. van Dyck CH, Quinlan DM, Cretella LM, Staley JK, Malison RT, Baldwin RM, Seibyl JP, Innis RB (2002) Unaltered dopamine transporter availability in adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry 159: 309-312
154. Volkow ND (2006) Stimulant medications: how to minimize their reinforcing effects? Am J Psychiatry 163: 359-361
155. Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Fowler JS, Logan J, Schlyer D, Hitzemann R, Lieberman J, Angrist B, Pappas N, MacGregor R et al (1994) Imaging endogenous dopamine competition with [11C]raclopride in the human brain. Synapse 16: 255-262
156. Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Newcorn J, Fowler JS, Telang F, Solanto MV, Logan J, Wong C, Ma Y, Swanson JM, Schulz K, Pradhan K (2007a) Brain dopamine transporter levels in treatment and drug naive adults with ADHD. Neuroimage 34: 1182-1190
157. Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Newcorn J, Telang F, Solanto MV, Fowler JS, Logan J, Ma Y, Schulz K, Pradhan K, Wong C, Swanson JM (2007b) Depressed dopamine activity in caudate and preliminary evidence of limbic involvement in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 64: 932-940
158. Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Kollins SH, Wigal TL, Newcorn JH, Telang F, Fowler JS, Zhu W, Logan J, Ma Y, Pradhan K, Wong C, Swanson JM (2009) Evaluating dopamine reward pathway in ADHD: clinical implications. Jama 302: 1084-1091
159. Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Newcorn JH, Kollins SH, Wigal TL, Telang F, Fowler JS, Goldstein RZ, Klein N, Logan J, Wong C, Swanson JM (2010) Motivation deficit in ADHD is associated with dysfunction of the dopamine reward pathway. Mol Psychiatry 20(4): 717-734
160. Wang J, Jiang T, Cao Q, Wang Y (2007) Characterizing anatomic differences in boys with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder with the use of deformation based morphometry. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 28: 543-547
161. Wilens TE (2008) Effects of methylphenidate on the catecholaminergic system in attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol 28: S46-S53
162. Willcutt EG, Doyle AE, Nigg JT, Faraone SV, Pennington BF (2005) Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Biol Psychiatry 57: 1336-1346
163. Williams GV, Goldman-Rakic PS (1995) Modulation of memory fields by dopamine D1 receptors in prefrontal cortex. Nature 376: 572-575