Globalization(s), privatization(s), constitutionalization, and statization: Icons and experiences of sovereignty in the 21st century

International Journal of Constitutional Law

Volumn 11, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 162-199

  Resnik, Judith ^a  

^a YALE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 84874721871     PISSN: 14742640     EISSN: 14742659     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/icon/mos051     Document Type: Article

References (193)

1. The classic reference is Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of NatiBenedict Anderson, Imagined Communona lism (1983).
2. See Robert K. Barnhart, The Barnhart Concise Dictiona ry of Etymology: The Origins of American English Words 548 (1995).
3. See, e.g., Saskia Sassen, Territory, Authority, Rights: From Medieval to Globa l Assemblages (2006).
4. See, e.g., Eric Ip, Globalization and the Future of the Law of the Sovereign State, 8 Int'l J. Con st. L. (I.CON) 636-637 (2010).
5. Andrea Hamann & Hélène Ruiz Fabri, Transnational Networks and Constitutionalism, 6 Int'l J. Con st. L. (I.CON) 481 (2008).
6. Neil Walker, Beyond Boundary Disputes and Basic Grids: Mapping the Global Disorder of Normative Orders, 6 Int'l J. Con st. L. (I.CON) 373 (2008).
7. Daniela Caruso, Private Law and State-Making in the Age of Globalization, 39 N.Y.U. J. Int'l L. & Pol. 1 (2006).
8. Barbara Stark, Women and Globalization: The Failure and Postmodern Possibilities of International Law, 33 Van d. J. T ran sna t'l L. 503 (2000).
9. See Sabino Cassese, When Legal Orders Collide: The Role of Courts (2010).
10. Paul B. Stephan, Privatizing International Law (Va. Law and Econ. Research Paper No. 2011-02), available at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1780468.
11. Judith Resnik, Joshua Civin & Joseph Frueh, Ratifying Kyoto at the Local Level: Sovereigntism, Federalism, and Translocal Organizations of Governmental Actors (TOGAs), 50 Ariz. L. Rev. 709 (2008).
12. See, e.g., Richard Stewart & Michelle Ratton Sanchez Badin, The World Trade Organization: Multiple Dimensions of Global Administrative Law, 9 Int'l J. Const. L. (I.CON) 556, 557-558 (2011).
13. See Alec Stone Sweet, Constitutionalism, Legal Pluralism, and International Regimes, 16 Ind. J. G loba l L. Studies 621 (2009).
14. Int'l J. Const. L. (I.CON) 563 (2010).
15. Judith Resnik, Law's Migration: American Exceptionalism, Dialogues, and Federalism's Multiple Ports of Entry, 115 Yale L.J. 1564 (2006).
16. Angus Johnston & Edward Powles, The Kings of the World and Their Dukes' Dilemma: Globalisation, Jurisdiction and the Rule of Law, Globa lisation and Jurisdiction 13 (Piet Jan Slot & Mielle Bulterman eds., 2004).
17. See Kim Scheppele, The Post-9/11 Globalization of Public Law and the International State of Emergency, The Migration of Anti-Constitutiona l Ideas at 347-373 (Sujit Choudhry ed., 2007).
18. See, e.g., Vicki Jack son, Constitutiona l Engagement in a Transna tiona l Era (2010).
19. Miguel Maduro, Three Claims of Constitutional Pluralism, in Constitutiona l Pluralism in the European Union and Beyond 67.
20. Norman Dorsen & Michel Rosenfeld, Note to Readers, 1 Int'l J. Const. L. (I.CON) 1 (2003). One law journal (at least) makes that point with its name. See Vik Kanwar & Parbhakar Singh, The Globalization of Legal Knowledge, 2 Jindal Globa l L. Rev. ix (2010).
21. Joseph Weiler, Passing the Baton: A Manifesto, 8 Int'l J. Const. L. (I.CON) 1-2 (2010).
22. Opinion, Jeffrey Jowell, HCJ 2605/05 Academic Center of Law and Business v. Minister of Finance (Isr. Aug. 20, 2006) 30 [hereinafter Jowell]. The Israeli Supreme Court thereafter decided HCJ 2605/05 Academic Center of Law and Business v. Minister of Finance (Isr.), [hereinafter Academic Center, referenced below to the English translation and with the names of the justices writing and the paragraphs cited].http://elyon1.court.gov.il/files_eng/05/050/026/n39/05026050.n39.htm2009.
23. A.L.A Management and Operations, an Israeli corporation with non-Israeli investors, "was incorporated for the specific purpose of bidding." That corporation built a new facility near Beer-Sheba for 800 prisoners; after the decision, the building was sold to the Israel Prison Service. See Richard Harding, State Monopoly of "Permitted Violation of Human Rights": The Decision of the Supreme Court of Israel Prohibiting the Private Operation and Management of Prisons, 14 Punishment & Soc'y 131, 134, 144 n.6 (2012).
24. Sundar and Others v. Chattisgarh, (2011) 7 S.C.C. 547 73 [hereinafter Sundar]. The case was filed by "private" parties-a sociologist and historian as well as a former government minister. At issue were the appointments pursuant to Chattisgarh's law addressing Special Police Officers (SPOs), which the court contrasted with the 1861 Indian Police Act that also authorized supplementing state-based police forces through specially-appointed forces.2007.
25. Cf. Darker Legaci es of Law in Europe: The Shadow of Nationa l Socialism and Fascism over Europe and its Legal Traditions (Christian Joerges & Navraj Singh Ghaleigh eds., 2003).
26. Steve Pincus & James RobinsonThis work thus joins others in thickening histories of state funding beyond the fiscal-military paradigm. See, e.g., The Rise of the Interventionist State (paper on file with the author, 2012).
27. Steve Hindle, State and Social Change in early Modern England 1560-1640 (2002).
28. A comparative overview, permitting a glimpse of the wealth of activity, attention, and regulation of courts, is the essay Ordinary Proceedings in First Instance by Ben Kaplan, Kevin M. Clermont, Alphonse Kohl, Hans Schima, Hans Hoyser, Edmund Wengerke, Per Olof Elelöf, Enrique Vescovi, Mauro Cappelletti, and Bryant Garth, in Civil Procedure, XVI Interna tiona l Encyclopedia of Comparative Law 250 (1984).
29. See, e.g., David A. Sklansky, The Private Police, 46 UCLA L. R ev. 1165 (1999).
30. Ethan A. Nadelman, Cops Across Borders (1993).
31. The distinction between global norms of human rights and their instantiation at national and local levels has been well mapped. The "global" may spawn its own police, courts, and prisons, but the scale and realities of material existence locate individuals in time and place and hence states (albeit not necessarily the ones now configured) are likely to endure to provide these functions and (as I argue in this essay) many others. See generally Seyla Benhabib, Dignity in Adversity: Human Rights in Troubled Times (2011).
32. Erez & Aeyal M. GrossSee generally Exploring Social Rights: Between Theory and Prac tice (Daphne Barak- eds., 2007).39 The question of the degree of independence of member states of the EU to shape state identity was at issue in the German Constitutional Court's decision on the Lisbon Treaty. That court listed aspects of a polity-criminal law, police, military fiscal policy, family, religious communities, school and education- as so central to individual member states that they were, absent agreement from the state, insulated from EU overrides. See Bundesverfassungsgericht [BVerfG] 2 BvE 2108, June 30, 2009251-252, http://www.bverfg.de/entscheidungen/es20090630_2bve000208en.html.
33. The famous sequence in the United States, growing out of a debate about whether national law can be applied to state governments, is National League of Cities v. Usery, 426 U.S. 833 (1976.
34. Garcia v. San Antonio Transit Authority, 469 U.S. 528 (1985.
35. Laurence H. Tribe, Unraveling National League of Cities: The New Federalism and Affirmative Rights to Essential Government Services, 90 Harv. L. Rev. 1065 (1977).
36. See, e.g., John Keay, The Honorable Company: A History of the English East India Company (4).
37. The aspirations for global citizenship and the distinction between constitutional subjects and subjectivities are explored by Selya Benhabib in her review of Michel Rosenfeld's The Identity of the Constitutional Subject: Selfhood, Citizenship, Culture, and Community (2010), in 33 Cardozo L. R ev. 1889 (2012).
38. My argument is not that the institutional activities are fixed, as is exemplified by debates about the relationship between member states and Europe, including the decision on the Economic Stability plan. See, e.g., Bundesverfassungsgericht [BVerfG] 2 BvR 1390/12, Sept. 12, 2012, http://www.bverfg.de/entscheidungen/rs20120912_2bvr139012en.html.
39. See, e.g, Jean-Marie Guéhenno, The End of the Nation State (Victoria Elliott trans., 2000).
40. Jean Cohen, Whose Sovereignty? Empire Versus International Law, 18.3 Ethics & Int'l Affairs (2004).
41. Claude Karnoouh, On the Genealogy of Globalization, 124 Telos 183 (Summer 2002).
42. see also Jeffrey C. Alexander, "Globalization" as Collective Representation: The New Dream of a Cosmopolitan Civil Sphere, 19 Int. J. P ol. Culture Soc'y 81 (2005).
43. S. Afr. Const., 26(2) (housing); 27(2) (healthcare, food, water, and social security).1996.
44. See, e.g., Katharine G. Y oung, Constituting Economic and Social Rights (2012).
45. Sandra Fredman, Human Rights Transformed: Positive Rights and Positive Duties 77-79 (2008).
46. Social Rights in Europe (Gráinne de Búrca & Bruno de Witte eds., 2005).
47. See, e.g., Reva Siegel, The Constitutionalization of Abortion, in The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Constitutiona l Law 1057 (Michel Rosenfeld & Andras Sajo eds., 2012) [hereinafter Siegel, The Constitutionalization of Abortion]2012.
48. Jan Klabbers, Anne Peters & Geir Ulfstein, The Constitutiona lization of Interna tiona l Law (2009).
49. Berthold Rittberger & Frank Schimmelfennig, The Constitutiona lization of the European Union (2007).
50. Deborah Cass, The Constitutiona lization of the World Trade Organization (2005).
51. See The Invention of Tradition (Eric Hobsbawm & Terence Ranger eds., 1983).
52. See, e.g., Kathryn E. Slanski, The Law of Hammurabi and Its Audience, 24 Yale J.L. & Human. 97 (2012).
53. J.G. Manning, The Representation of Justice in Ancient Egypt, 24 Yale J.L. & Human. 111 (2012).
54. Steven D. Fraade, Violence and Ancient Public Spheres: A Response, 24 Yale J.L. & Human. 137 (2012).
55. David Nicholas, The Grow th of the Medieval City: From Late Antiquity to the Early Fourteenth Century 235-240 (1997).
56. (Surveying the "folkmoot" of London, the "alderman" in Denmark, the "scabini" of the Low Country, the "jurés and échevins" in France, the "rat" or council in Germany, and various other configurations of guilds, citizens, councilors, and assemblies).
57. Robert Tittler, Architecture and Pow er: The Town Hall and the English Urban Community, 1500-1640, 92-93 (1991).
58. See Fabrizio J. Nevola, Per Ornato Della Città: Siena's Strada Romana and Fifteenth-Century Urban Renewal, 82 Art Bull. 26-27 (2000).
59. Carl Lounsbury, The Courthouses of Early Virginia: An Architectural History 321 (2005).
60. James C. S cott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed 28-33 (1998).
61. See Edward M. Peters, Prison Before the Prison: The Ancient and Medieval Worlds, in The Oxford History of the Prison: The Prac tice of Punishment in Western Society 3-47 (Norval Morris & David J. Rothman eds.,) [hereinafter Oxford History of the Prison]1995.
62. see also The Emergence of Carceral Institutions: Prisons, Galleys and Luna tic Asylums 1550-1900 (Pieter Spierenburg ed., 1984).
63. John Langbein, The Historical Origins of the Sanction of Imprisonment for Serious Crime, 5 J. Legal Studies 35 (1976).
64. David Nicholas, The Grow th of the Medieval City: From Late Antiquity to the Early Fourteenth Century 141-145, 235-240 (1997).
65. (Surveying the "folkmoot" of London, the "alderman" in Denmark, the "scabini" of the Low Country, the "jurés and échevins" in France, the "rat" or council in Germany, and various other configurations of guilds, citizens, councilors, and assemblies).
66. Robert Tittler, Architecture and Pow er: The Town Hall and the English Urban Community, 1500-1640 92-93 (1991).
67. See Fabrizio J. Nevola, Per Ornato Della Città: Siena's Strada Romana and Fifteenth-Century Urban Renewal, 82 Art Bull. 26-27 (2000).
68. Carl Lounsbury, The Courthouses of Early Virginia: An Architectural History 321 (2005).
69. James C. S cottThe "metrical revolution" came thereafter. Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed 28-33 (1998).
70. See Edward M. Peters, Prison Before the Prison: The Ancient and Medieval Worlds, in The Oxford History of the Prison: The Prac tice of Punishment in Western Society 3-47 (Norval Morris & David J. Rothman eds.,) [hereinafter Oxford History of the Prison]1995.
71. see also The Emergence of Carceral Institutions: Prisons, Galleys and Luna tic Asylums 1550-1900 (Pieter Spierenburg ed., 1984.
72. John Langbein, The Historical Origins of the Sanction of Imprisonment for Serious Crime, 5 J. Legal Studies 35 (1976).
73. See Gregory L. Hershberger, The Development of the Federal Prison System, 43 Fed. Proba tion 13-14 (1979).
74. Glimpsing back two hundred years underscores the changes. In the United States in 1850, no building owned by the federal government had the name "courthouse" on its front door. While local and state governments had by then funded such purpose-built structures, the fewer than forty federal judges dispersed around the country needed no building of their own. In contrast, by, more than 850 federal judges were chartered to sit in hundreds of federal courthouses, so-named, that joined the thousands of state and local courthouses around the country2010.
75. Judith Resnik, Building the Federal Judiciary (Literally and Legally): The Monuments of Chief Justices Taft, Warren, and Rehnquist, 87 Ind. L.J. 823 (2012).
76. Judith Resnik & Dennis CurtisOn the political import of national, regional, and international courthouse building, see generally, Representing Justice: Invention, Controversy and Rights in City-states and Democratic Courtrooms 193-281 (2011).
77. Pieter Spierenburg, The Prison Experience: Disciplina ry Institutions and Their Inmates in Modern Europe 267 (1991).
78. See Jean-Pierre Pech, Aix-En-Provence-Le Palais Monclar: construire un palais dans une prison (Aix-En- Provence-the Monclar Courthouse: Building a Courthouse in a Prison), in La nouvelle architecture judiciaire: Des palais de justice modernes pour une nouvelle image de la justice [New Judicial Architecture: Modern Courthouses and a New Image of Justice] 21-22 (2000).
79. Jeremy Bentham, 1 Writings on the Poor Law s 277 (Michael Quinn ed., 2001).
80. Jeremy Bentham, Panopticon, or, the Inspection-House (1791).
81. The Works of Jeremy Bentham at 48 (John Bowring ed., Edinburgh, Tait,) [hereinafter Bentham, Panopticon] (emphasis in original).1843.
82. Jeremy Bentham, Rationale of Judicial Evidence (1827) 6 The Works of Jeremy Bentham 355 ("Of Publicity and Privacy, as Applied to Judicature in General, and to the Evidence in Particular") (John Bowring ed., Edinburgh, Tait,) [hereinafter Bentham, Rationale of Judicial Evidence].
83. Charter or Fundamental Laws of West New Jersey, Agreed Upon, ch. XXIII reprinted in Sources of Our Liberties (Richard L. Perry ed., 1959).1676188.
84. Judith Resnik, Fairness in Numbers: A Comment on ATT v. Concepcion, Wal-Mart v. Dukes, and Turner v. Rogers, 104-105 (2011) [hereinafter Resnik, Fairness in Numbers].125 Harv. L. R ev. 80-81.
85. See Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society (Thomas Burger trans., 1991).
86. Jürgen Habermas, Between Fac ts and Norms: Contributions to a Discourse Theory of Law and Democrac y 97-99 (William Rehg trans., 1996).
87. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, art. 14, Dec. 16, 1966, G.A. Res. 2200A U.N. Doc. 1/6316 [hereinafter ICCPR].XXI.
88. Nat'l Ctr. for State Courts, Examining the Work of State Courts: An Ana lysis of 2009 State Court Caseloa ds 3 (2011), http://www.courtstatistics.org/FlashMicrosites/CSP/images/CSP2009.pdf.
89. Council of Europe, European Judicial Systems-Edition 2010 (Data 2008): Efficiency and Quality of Justice (2010).
90. Gillian Hadfield, Higher Demand, Lower Supply? A Comparative Assessment of the Legal Resource Landscape for Ordinary Americans, 37 Fordham Urban L.J. 129 (2010).
91. The Costs and Funding of Civil Litigation: A Comparative Perspective (Christopher Hodges, Magdalena Tulibacka & Stefan Cogenaver eds., 2010).
92. See generally Nicola Lac ey, The Prisoners' Dilemma: Politica l Economy and Punishment in Contemporary Democraci es (The Hamlyn Lectures) (2008).
93. Sandra L. R esodihardjo, Crisis and Change in the British and Dutch Prison Services: Understanding Crisis Reform Processes (2009).
94. Figures come from the Bureau of Justice Statistics, http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/.
95. James Kessler, Prisons in the USA: Cost, Quality and Community in Correctional Design, in Prison Architecture: Policy, Design, and Experience 93 (Leslie Fairweather Seán McConville eds.,) [hereinafter Prison Architecture].2000.
96. The Pew Charitable Trusts, One in 100: Behind Bars in America 5 (2008).
97. The Pew Charitable Trusts, One in 31: The Long Reac h of American Corrections 1 (2009).
98. Suzanne M. Kirchhoff, Cong. Research Serv., R411177, Economic Impac ts of Prison Grow th 2-3 (2010),http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R41177.pdf.
99. See Brown v. Plata, 131 S. Ct. (2011).
100. James Sterngold, Prisons' Budget to Trump Colleges', S.F. Chronicle, May 21, 2007.
101. Basic Principles for the Treatment of Prisoners, G.A. Res. 45/111, 9, U.N. Doc. A/RES/45/111 (Dec. 14, 1990).
102. Wolff v. McDonnell, 418 U.S. 539-555 (1974).
103. A parallel comment comes from the Supreme Court of India. "Whenever fundamental rights are flouted. to any prisoner's prejudice, the Court's writ will run, breaking through stone walls and iron bars... "Sobhraj v. Superintendent, (1 S.C.R. 512 (India).
104. See, e.g., Estelle v. Gamble, 429 U.S. 97 (1976).
105. See, e.g., Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 (1966).
106. Salduz v. Turkey, 36391/02 Eur. Ct. H.R. (2008),http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/sites/eng/pages/search.aspx?i=001-89893.
107. Ambrose Harris (2011) UKSC 43, 50-54 (U.K.).
108. See Wilkinson v. Austin, 545 U.S. 209 (2005).
109. See, e.g., Atul Chandra Patra, The Administration of Justice under the East-India Company in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa (1962).
110. Nicholas Parrillo, Against the Profit Motive: The Salary Revolution in American Government, 1780-1940 (forthcoming 2013).
111. Ahmed A. White, Rule of Law and the Limits of Sovereignty: The Private Prison in Jurisprudential Perspective, 38 Crim. L. Rev. 111 (2001).
112. See Michel Fouca ult, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison 7-9 (Alan Sheridan trans., 1977).
113. See Peter Drucker, The Age of Discontinuity: Guidelines to Our Changing Society 223-229 (1969).
114. Paul Starr, The Meaning of Privatization, 6 Yale J. L. & Pol'y 6 (1988).
115. James Bamberg, The History of the British Petroleum Company, Volume 2: The Anglo-Iranian Years,522 (1994).
116. Ronald W. F errier, The History of the British Petroleum Company, Volume 1: The Developing Years, 1901-1932, at 10-13, 538-542 (1982).
117. James Bamberg, British Petroleum and Globa l Oil 1950-1975: The Challenge of Nationa lism 1-10 (2000).
118. The company renamed itself BP, and in 2010 became identified with Louisiana as oil rig ruptures disfigured the United States Gulf coast. See generally, Our History, BP, http://www.bp.com/extendedsectiongenericarticle. do?categoryId=9039337contentId=7036819.
119. John D. Dona hue, The Privatization Decision: Public Ends, Private Means 7 (1989).
120. See, e.g., Government by Contrac t: Outsourcing and American Democrac y (Jody Freeman & Martha Minow eds., 2009.
121. Paul R. V erkuil, Outsourcing Sovereignty: Why Privatization of Government Functions Threatens Democrac y and What We Can Do About It (2007).
122. Catherine M. D onnelly, Delegation of Governmental Pow er to Private Parties: A Comparative Perspective (2007).
123. See, e.g., Deborah Mostaghel, Dubai Ports World Under Exon-Florio: A Threat to National Security or a Tempest in a Seaport?, 70 Alb. L. Rev. 583 (2007).
124. The GEO Group, Inc., Annual Report, https://materials.proxyvote.com/Approved/36159R/20120302/AR_120114/document.pdf at 2-32011.
125. see also The Law Office of the Southern Center for Human Rights, Profiting on the Poor: A R eport on Predatory Proba tion Companies in Georgia (2008), http://www.schr.org/files/profit_from_poor.pdf.
126. Corrections Corporation of America, Form 10-K, at 21 available at http://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1070985/000095014406001892/g99938e10vk.htm2005.
127. see also Michelle Alexander, The New Jim Crow Mass Inca rceration in the Age of Colorblindness 231 (2010).
128. Steve Bousquet, Prison Privatization Dies in Senate, Tampa Bay Times, Feb. 15, 2012, http://www.tampabay. com/news/publicsafety/crime/prison-privatization-dies-in-senate-21-19/1215438.
129. Privatization, Law, and the Challenge to Feminism (Brenda Cossman & Judy Fudge eds., 2002).
130. Michael Sandel, What Money Can't Buy: The Moral Limits of Markets 3 (2012).
131. Geoffrey C. Hazard, Jr. & Paul D. Scott, The Public Nature of Private Adjudication, 6 Yale L. & Pol'y Rev. 42 (1988).
132. See Gillian K. Hadfield, The Dynamic Quality of Law: The Role of Judicial Incentives and Legal Human Capital in the Adaption of Law, 79 J. Econ. Behavior & Org. 80 (2011).
133. See generally Ian R. Macneil, American arbitration Law Reformation, Nationa lization, Interna tiona lization (1992).
134. See, e.g., Sheila Nagaraj, Comment, Marriage of Family Law and Private Judging in California, 116 Yale L.J. 1615 (2007).
135. See Directive 2008/52/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of May 21, 2008, on certain aspects of mediation in civil and commercial matters, Art. 1, 2008 O.J. (L 136) 3.
136. Shirley Shipman, Compulsory Mediation: The Elephant in the Room, 30 Jus. Quart. 163 (2011).
137. See, e.g., Deborah R. Hensler, Our Courts, Ourselves: How the Alternative Dispute Resolution Movement Is Re-shaping Our Legal System, 108 Penn St. L. R ev. 165 (2003).
138. Carrie Menkel-Meadow, Mothers and Fathers of Invention: The Intellectual Founders of ADR, 16 Ohio St. J. on Disp. Resol. 1 (2000).
139. Judith Resnik, Many Doors? Closing Doors? Alternative Dispute Resolution and Adjudication, 10 Ohio St. J. on Disp. Resol. 211 (1995).
140. This concern was forecast in Marc Galanter, Why the "Haves" Come Out Ahead: Speculations on the Limits of Legal Change, 9 Law & Soc'y Rev. 95 (1974).
141. See, e.g., Simon Roberts, "Listing Concentrates the Mind": The English Civil Court as an Arena for Structured Negotiation, 29 Oxford J. L. Stud. 457 (2009).
142. Judith Resnik, Managerial Judges, 96 Harv. L. R ev. 374 (1982).
143. Bryant Garth, From Civil Litigation to Private Justice: Legal Practice at War With the Profession and its Values, 59 Brook. L. R ev. 931 (1993).
144. see also Salem Advocate Bar Association v. Union of India (UOI), AIR SC 189.2003.
145. See Hazel Genn, Paths to Justice: What People Do and Think About Going to Law (1999).
146. See Hazel Genn, What is Civil Justice For? Reform, ADR and Access to Justice, 24 Yale J. L. & Hum. 397 (2012).
147. The legislation also directed the private provider to ensure "the welfare and health of the inmates and taking steps during the imprisonment that will aid their rehabilitation after their release for imprisonment, including employment training and education." Prisons Ordinance Amendment Law (no. 28), 5764 128.12.2004.
148. Daphne Barak-Erez, Three Questions of Privatization, in Comparative Administrative Law 493 (Susan Rose-Ackerman & Peter Lindseth eds., 2010).
149. Daphne Barak-Erez, The Private Prison Controversy and the Privatization Continuum, 5 Law & Ethics Hum. Rts. Rev. 138 (2011).
150. James Pfander, Government Accountability in Europe: A Comparative Perspective, 35 Geo. Wash. Int'l L. R ev. 611 (2003).
151. Michael J. Trebilcock & Edward M. Iacubucci, Privatization and Accountability, 116 Harv. L. R ev. 1422 (2003).
152. John J. Dilulio, Jr., Government by Proxy: A Faithful Overview, 116 Harv. L. Rev. 1271 (2003).
153. See, e.g., James Blumstein, Mark Cohen & Suman Seth, Do Government Agencies Respond to Market Pressures? Evidence from Private Prisons, 15 Va. J. S oc. Pol'y & L. 446 (2008).
154. Uri Timor, Privatization of Prisons in Israel: Gains and Risks, 39 Isr. L. Rev. 82-87 (2006).
155. Israel Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty (1A, 8).
156. Mary Sigler, Private Prisons, Public Functions, and the Meaning of Fla. St. U. L. R ev. Punishment, 38 149 (2010).
157. Michael Walzer has also argued that the "democratic defense of the right to punish" depends upon the state insuring that state actors, functioning in their representative capacity, treat citizen-detainees in the same, equal-handed manner. Michael Walzer, At McPrison and Burglar King It's. Hold the Justice, New Republic, Apr. 8, 1985, at 10-12.
158. Under Israel's Basic Law, dignity is not absolute; infringements are permissible under a proportionality analysis. See Basic Law 1 (8). This conception contrasts with the German view, in which dignity is understood as an absolute. See Susanne Baer, Dignity, Liberty, Equality: A Fundamental Rights Triangle of Constitutionalism, 59 U. Toronto L.J. 417 (2009).
159. T.H. Marshall, Citizenship and Social Class, in Class Citizenship and Social Development 72 (1949).
160. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Dec. 16,993 U.N.T.S. 3.1966.
161. Frank I. Michelman, Socioeconomic Rights in Constitutional Law: Explaining America Away, 6 Int'l J. Const. L. (I.CON) 663 (2008.
162. Mark TushnetCommentators have identified welfarist obligations in the United States Constitution or found the distinctions among kinds of rights unhelpful. See, e.g., Weak Courts, Strong Rights: Judicial Review and Social Welfare Rights in Comparative Constitutiona l Law (2008).
163. Robin West, Progressive Constitutiona lism: Reconstructing the Fourteenth Amendment (1994).
164. See, e.g., Robert Post & Reva Siegel, Roe Rage: Democratic Constitutionalism and Backlash, 42 Harv. Civ. Rights-Civ. Liberties L. Rev. 373 (2007).
165. Const. of the Republic of Chad art. 47 (1996).
166. Constitución Política de Columbia [C.P.] art. 79.
167. James R. May & Erin Daly, Vindicating Fundamental Environmental Rights Worldwide, 11 Or. Rev. Int'l L. 365 (2009).
168. See, e.g., Const. of the Republic of Gambia,215(1) (1996).
169. Const. of the Fourth Republic of Ghana, 36(9) (1992).
170. Note, The Case for Compulsory Voting in the United States, 121 Harv. L. Rev. 591-592 (2007).
171. Roach v. Electoral Commissioner HCA 43 (Austl.).2007.
172. Both state and federal constitutions guarantee rights to jury trials. In contrast, 125 of the Spanish Constitution permits citizens to "take part in the administration of justice through the institution of the jury.
173. Mar Jimeno-Bulnes, Jury Selection and Jury Trial in Spain: Between Theory and Practice, 86 Chi. Kent. L. R ev. 585 (2011).
174. Bruce Ackerman & James FishkinProposals for "deliberation days" in which citizens are to come together to discuss policies is another example of institution building. See, Deliberation Day (2004).
175. Grundgesetz Fur Die Bundesrepublik Deutschland [Grundgesetz] [GG] [Basic Law], May 23, art. 12(a)(2) (Ger.). Though this provision remains in the Constitution, it was rendered ineffective by the Military Law Amendment Act (2011), which eliminated compulsory military service.1949.
176. See Treaty Concerning the Formation of a General Postal Union, Oct. 9, 1874, 19 Stat. 577.
177. Postal Union, Mar. 21, 1885, 25 Stat. 1339http://www.upu.int.
178. Harrop Freeman, International Administrative Law: A Functional Approach to Peace, 57 Yale L.J. 976-978 (1947.
179. Freeman described the Universal Postal Union as "the first international body whose permanent bureau had more than the power to gather information. It was assigned executive functions in clearing accounts, and was charged with offering opinions on disputes between members".
180. See Oceana Constitutions of the Countries of the World Database, (search terms "post office" and "postal") (last visited July 31, 2012).http://www.oceanalaw.com.
181. In 2009, the Brazilian Supreme Tribunal responded to a declaratory action seeking to hold invalid a law that had been enacted before the constitution of 1988 and that provided a state monopoly over certain forms of mail. A majority, discussing the role of the post as a public service and not only an economic activity, upheld the statute, with Justica Barbosa highlighting that a subsidized postal service in producing national identity. See S.T.F., ADPF 46/DF, Relator: Min. Eros Grau, 8.5.2009,. The opinion, issued in August of 2009, was published February 26, 2010.http://redir.stf.jus.br/paginadorpub/paginador.jsp?docTP=ACocID=608504.
182. U.S. Const. art. 1, 8, cl. 7.
183. James Madison, Public Opinion, Nationa l Gazette, Dec. 19, 1791, reprinted in 14 Papers of James Madison (Robert Rutland & Thomas Mason eds., 1983).
184. Postal Policy Act of 1958, Pub. L. No. 85-426, 102, 72 Stat. 134, 134.
185. Postal Reorganization Act, Pub. L. No. 91-375, 101(a), 84 Stat. 719-719 (1970).
186. Postal Accountability and Enhancement Act, Pub. L. No. 109-435, 120 Stat. 3198 (2006).
187. See Lois Craig, A Federal Presence: Architecture, Politics, and Symbols in U.S. Government Building (1984).
188. United States Postal Serv. v. Flamingo Indus. (USA), Ltd., 540 U.S. 736, 739 (quotation omitted).2004.
189. James I. Campbell, Jr., George Mason Sch. of Pub. Policy, Universal Service Obligation: History and Development of Laws Relating to the Provision of Universal Postal Services, in Study on Universal Postal Service and the Postal Monopoly app. B at 21 (2008).
190. Restoring the Financial Stability of the U.S. Postal Service: What Needs to Be Done?: Hearing Before the Subcomm. Fed. Workforce, Postal Service, and the District of Columbia, 111th Cong. (Mar. 25,), (testimony of Dale Goff, Pres., Nat'l Ass'n of Postmasters of the U.S.). http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CHRG-111hhrg50649/html/CHRG-111hhrg50649.htm2009.
191. Flamingo Industries, Ltd., 540 U.S. at 746.
192. Nye Stevens, Cong. Research Serv., RL31069, Postal Service Financia l Problems and Stakeholder Proposals11 (2002). 208.
193. Kevin R. Kosar, Cong. Research Serv., R41950, The U.S. Postal Service: Common Questions About Post Office Closures 4 (2012).