The world of atonement: Reparations for historical injustices

Netherlands International Law Review

Volumn 50, Issue 3, 2003, Pages 289-325

  Shelton, Dinah ^a  

^a NOTRE DAME LAW SCHOOL   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 84874058502     PISSN: 0165070X     EISSN: 17416191     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0165070X03002894     Document Type: Review

References (163)

1. E.L. Andrews, 'Iraqi Looters Tearing Up Archaeological Sites', The New York Times, 23 May 2003, p. 1.
2. A. Zavis, 'Looted Iraqi Treasures Recovered Slowly', AP, 7 May 2003.
3. Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Civilian Persons in Time of War, 12 August 1949, 6 UST 3516, TIAS No. 3365, 75 UNTS p. 287. Earlier and less developed provisions are found in Arts. 27, 47 and 56 of the 1907 Hague Convention IV Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land, 18 October 1907, 36 Stat. 2277, 2 AJIL (1908) Supp. 90 (prohibiting pillage and protecting institutions dedicated, inter alia, to arts and sciences and prohibiting seizure, destruction or willful damage to historic monuments and works of art or science).
4. Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, 14 May 1954, 249 UNTS pp. 240-288, Arts. 4(3) and 5. For a discussion of the 1954 Convention, see S.E. Nahlik, 'International Law and the Protection of Cultural Property in Armed Conflict', 27 Hastings LJ (1976) p. 1069.
5. As of 4 August 2003, Pietro Cordone, an Italian official in charge of Iraq's cultural activities, estimated that 1200 looted artifacts had been returned, but 2200 are still missing and the museum will not reopen for at least eighteen months. B. Sisario, 'Arts Briefing', New York Times, 4 August 2003, p. E2.
6. See Capt. J.E. Kastenberg, 'The Legal Regime for Protecting Cultural Property During Armed Conflict', 42 AFI Rev. (1997) p. 277.
7. While modern Egypt made no reparations claim, various heads of state and other officials, including a representative of the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, signed the Aswan Declaration for the Revival of the Ancient Library of Alexandria just over a decade ago, aiming to reconstitute the library as a repository for all human knowledge. Contributions, including financial assistance by UNDP, exceeded US$65,000,000 and the library reopened in 2003 with the cooperation of UNESCO. The Aswan Declaration for the Revival of the Ancient Library of Alexandria is available at http://www.sis.gov /eg/alex-lib/html/alex03.htm.
8. According to the editor of a recent book on slave reparations, the success of some groups in obtaining reparations may be viewed as discriminatory by others who do not receive reparations for their injustices. See R.A. Winbush, ed., Should America Pay? Slavery and the Raging Debate on Reparations (New York, Harper Collins 2003) p. 1. In Winbush's view, discrimination is 'not only a common occurrence, but is firmly rooted in international law'. Idem. Chris K. Iijima posits that Japanese- Americans received reparations as a 'model minority' and lesson to other groups. See C.K. Iijima, 'Reparations and the "Model Minority" Ideology of Acquiescence: The Necessity to Refuse the Return to Original Humiliation', 40 Boston College L Rev. (1998) p. 385.
9. The World Conference against Racism, Durban South Africa, 30 August 2001 to 7 September 2001, pursuant to UNGA 52/111, http://www.un.org /WCAR/e-kit/backgrounder1.htm.
10. On 6 November 2003, a United States federal court began hearing a case against 34 international companies accused of profiting from apartheid in South Africa. BBC, 'Date Set in NY apartheid case', 22 May 2003. For background on the case see South African Press Association, 'NGO Launches US Apartheid Reparations Law Suit', 12 November 2002, available at http://allafrica.com/stories/pritable/200211140010.html.
11. Dolzer, loc. cit. n. 13, at p. 335, fn. 157.
12. See M. Omatsu, Bittersweet Passage: Redress and the Japanese Canadian Experience (Toronto, Between the Lines 1992).
13. Lawsuits have been filed in Japan, the Philippines and the United States. For a discussion of the various claims, see http://www.comfort-women.org /news.html.
14. See W.A. Perrin, 'The Petition to Obtain an Apology for the Acadian Deportation', 27 Southern Univ. L Rev. 1 (1999) p. 1.
15. S.L. Harring, 'German Reparations to the Herero Nation: An Assertion of Herero Nationhood in the Path of Namibian Development?', 104 W Va. L Rev. (2002) p. 393. Arbitrary seizures of their lands initially led to an uprising by the Herero, in response to which the German General Lothar Von Trotha issued a proclamation on 2 October 1904, ordering all Herero men killed and all their lands and cattle seized. Some Herero were sent to prison camps where they were subjected to eugenic experiments and torture. Women and children were driven into the Kalahari Desert where they died of mass starvation. Only a few thousand persons escaped to become refugees in what is now Botswana. Most of the traditional Herero lands today remain in the hands of German colonial descendants and are the mainstay of Namibian agriculture. Idem, at pp. 397-398. See also H. Bley, Namibia Under German Rule (Sommerset, NJ, Transaction Publishers 1999); J. Bridgeman, The Revolt of the Hereros (Berkeley, Berkeley University Press 1981); H. Drechsler, Let Us Die Fighting: The Struggle of the Herero and Nama against German Imperialism (Westport, Conn., Lawrence Hill & Co. 1966); T. Pakenham, The Scramble for Africa (New York, Avon Books 1991) ch. 33.
16. C. Munnion, 'Namibian Tribe Sues Germany for Genocide', filed 31 January 2003, available at http://www.telegraph.co.uk /news/main.jhtml?xml=news/2003/01/31/wherer31.xml.
17. For an analysis of indigenous claims in the United States, see W. Bradford, 'With a Very Great Blame on Our Hearts: Reparations, Reconciliation, and an American Indian Plea for Peace with Justice', 27 Am. Indian Rev. (2002-2003) p. 1; N.J. Newton, 'Indian Claims in the Courts of the Conqueror', 41 Am. Univ. L Rev. (1992) p. 753; R.T. Coulter, in National Lawyers Guild Committee on Native American Struggles, ed., Rethinking Indian Law (New Haven, Conn., Advocate Press, Inc. 1982) p. 103.
18. Despite a plethora of treaties, Native American land holding went from 138 million acres in 1887 to 52 million acres by 1934. Some 26 million acres were lost through fraudulent transfers. See P. Brest and M. Oshige, 'Affirmative Action for Whom?', 47 Stan. L Rev. (1995) p. 855.
19. Office of Hawaiian Affairs v. State of Hawaii, Civ. No. 94-0205-01; Ka-ai-ai v. Drake, Civ. No. 92-3742-10 (1st Cir. 1992); Kealoha v. Hee, Civ. No. 94-0118-1 (1st Cir.).
20. The phrase and the promise come from General William Tecumseh Sherman's Special Field Order No. 15 of 16 January 1865. Hitchens, idem, at p. 174.
21. V.E. Smith, 'Debating the Wages of Slavery', Newsweek, 27 August 2001, p. 20. In Congress, Representative John Conyers, first introduced the Reparations Study Bill (HR 40) in 1989. He has renewed the proposal in each subsequent session of Congress.
22. A.A. Mazrui, 'Who Should Pay for Slavery?', 40 World Press Review (August 1993) p. 22.
23. Reports of Preparatory Meetings and Activities at the International, Regional and National Levels, Final documents of the European Conference against Racism, Strasbourg, France, 11-13 October 2000, UN GAOR, Preparatory Comm., 2nd Sess., Annex IV-V, UN Doc. A/CONF.189/PC.2/6 (2001).
24. Report of Preparatory Meetings and Activities at the International, Regional and National Levels, Report of the Regional Conference of the Americas, Santiago, Chile, 5-7 December 2000, UN GAOR, Preparatory Comm., 2nd Sess., Annex IV-V, UN Doc. A/CONF.189/PC.2/7 (2001) p. 14, para. 70. Over the objections of Canada and the US, the paragraph remained in the report.
25. Reports of Preparatory Meetings and Activities at the International, Regional and National Levels, Report of the Asian Preparatory Meeting (Teheran, 19-21 February 2001), UN GAOR, Preparatory Comm., 2nd Sess., UN Doc. A/CONF.189/PC.2/9 (2001) p. 11, para. 50.
26. Report of the World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance, Durban, 31 August-8 September 2001, UN GAOR, UN Doc. A/CONF.189/12 (2002) pp. 5-27. For a critical view of the Conference, see C.N. Camponovo, 'Disaster in Durban: The United Nations World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia, and Related Intolerance', 34 Geo. Wash. Int'l L Rev. (2003) p. 659.
27. See M. Cunningham, 'Saying Sorry: The Politics of Apology', 70 The Political Quarterly (1999) p. 285; M Gibney and E. Roxstrom, 'The Status of State Apologies', 23 Hum. Rts. Q (2001) p. 911.
28. P. Taylor, 'France Finally Admits Role in Aiding Nazi Death Machine', Chicago Sun-Times, 17 July 1995, p. 20.
29. N. Mills, 'The New Culture of Apology', Dissent (Fall, 2001) p. 113 at p. 114.
30. J. Ghannam, 'Repairing the Past', ABA Journal, November 2000, p. 39.
31. See Memory and Reconciliation: The Church and the Faults of the Past. International Theological Commission, available at www.vatican.va /roman-curia/congregations/cfaith/cti-documents/rc- concfaith-20000307-memory-reconcitc-en.html.
32. Mills, loc. cit. n. 37, at p. 113.
33. Mills, loc. cit. n. 37, at p. 113.
34. BBC News World Edition, 8 July 2003.
35. C.D. Frantz, 'Getting Back What was Theirs? The Reparations Mechanisms for the Land Rights Claims of the Maori and the Navajo', 16 Dick. JIL (1998) p. 489.
36. H. Reynolds, Law of the Land (Ringwood, Penguin Books 1987) pp. 31-54.
37. Restitution of Land Rights Act 22 of 1993, Republic of South Africa, Department of Land Affairs, White Paper on Land Policy (1997) s. 3.17.
38. Act of 13 August 1946, ch. 959, s. 1, 60 Stat. 1049 (West 1999).
39. 43 USC s. 1601 (1998). The Alaskan Native Claims Settlement Act awarded US$1 billion and billion acres of land that had been wrongfully seized.
40. The Waikato Raupatu Claims Settlement Bill of 1995 gave reparations of US$40 million for the seizure of Maori lands by British colonists in 1863. See C. Cunneen, 'One Way to Give Back to the Stolen Generations', The Sydney Herald, 14 August 2000, p. 14. Information also available at http://www.ngaitahu.iwi.nz
41. Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act, 25 USCA ss. 3001-3013, 18 USCA s. 1170. Many state laws in the US similarly protecting Native American remains and cultural objects. See H.M. Price III, Disputing the Dead: U.S. Law on Aboriginal Remains and Grave Goods (Columbia, University of Missouri Press 1991).
42. See W. Kowalski, Art Treasures and War: A Study on the Restitution of Looted Cultural Property Pursuant to Public International Law (Leicester, Institute of Art and Law 1998). Cases seeking restitution include Rosenberg v. Seattle Art Museum, 70 F. Supp. 1163 (WD Wash. 1999); Goodman v. Searle, No. 96C 6459 (ND Ill. 9 February 1998); and People v. Museum of Modern Art, 252 AD 2d 211 (NY App. Div. 1999).
43. On the US actions, see Civil Liberties Act of 1988, 50 USC s. 1989. See also 'Symposium: Racial Reparations: Japanese American Redress and African American Claims', 40 Boston College L Rev. (1998) p. 477.
44. AP Newswire, 6 October 2000.
45. The five tribes are: the Klamaths of Oregon, the Sioux of South Dakota, the Seminoles of Florida and the Chippewas of Wisconsin, and the Ottowas of Michigan.
46. Norway announced a collective compensation fund in January 2000, aimed at promoting indigenous language and culture. Denmark established a collective compensation fund following a Danish High Court order in August 2000.
47. United States v. White Mountain Apace Tribe, 123 S.Ct. 1126 (4 March 2003). See also Cobell v. Norton, 240 F.3d 1081 (CADC, 2001) (23 February 2001).
48. J. Bassett, 'House Bill 591: Florida Compensates Rosewood Victims and Their Families for a Seventy-One-Year-Old Injury', 22 Fla. St. Univ. L Rev. (1994) p. 503.
49. Law No. 19, 123 Creating the National Corporation for Reparation and Reconciliation (Chilean National Congress 1992).
50. Canada Statement of Reconciliation issued 7 January 1998.
51. See. D. Porter, 'Eugenics and the Sterilization Debate in Sweden and Britain before World War II', 24 Scandinavian J History (1999) p. 145.
52. B.A. Kocking, 'Confronting the Possible Eugenics of the Past through Modern Pressures for Compensation', 69 Nordic JIL (2001) p. 501.
53. T.E. Chisolm, 'Note, Sweep Around your Own Front Door: Examining the Argument for Legislative African American Reparations', 147 Univ. Pa. L Rev. (1999) p. 677 at p. 685.
54. 16 July 1866, 14 Stat. 173 (1866).
55. The Apology for Slavery Resolution of 2000, HR 356, 106th Cong. (2000), available at http://www.house.gov /tonyhall/pr145/html.
56. See report of Special Rapporteur G. McDougall, UN EXCOR Comm. on Human Rights, 50th Sess., Prov. Agenda Item 6, para. 4, UN Doc E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13 (1998). For actions taken to press the reparations claim, see C.M. Chinkin, 'Women's International Tribunal on Japanese Military Sexual Slavery', 95 AJIL (2001) p. 335.
57. M. Igarashi, 'Post-War Compensation Cases', 43 Jap Ann. of Int'l L (2000) p. 45 at p. 49
58. Kocking, loc. cit. n. 62. See also R. Graycar, 'Compensation for Stolen Children: Political Judgments and Community Values', 21 UNSW Law Journal (1998) p. 253. Litigation for compensation over the Stolen Generations has been unsuccessful. Idem, at p. 504. For the national report, see Bringing Them Home: Report of the National Inquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children from Their Families (NISATSIC) (Sydney, Australia, Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission 1997), available at www.austlii.edu.au /au/special/rsjproject/rsjlibrary/hreoc/stolen/.
59. See A. Puddington, 'The Wages of Durban: The United Nations World Conference against Racism', Commentary, November 2001, p. 29.
60. Korematsu v. United States, 323 US 214 (1944).
61. 584 F. Supp. 1406 (ND Cal. 1984).
62. Cato v. United States, 70 F.3d 1103 1105 (9th Cir. 1995).
63. A 1998 ruling of the Shimonoseki Branch of the Yamaguchi District Court ordering nominal compensation was overturned in March 2001 by the Hiroshima High Court. BBC News, 29 March 2001.
64. Agreement for the Prosecution and Punishment of the Major War Criminals of the European Axis Powers and Charter of the International Military Tribunal, London, 8 August 1945, 59 Stat. 1544, 82 UNTS p. 279.
65. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, New York, 9 December 1948, 78 UNTS p. 277.
66. See 'Comfort Women', Japan Forum Archive, available at http://forum.japanreference.com/archive/topic/65-1.html. Interestingly, however, as early as 1904 the Imperial Chancellor, Count von Bulow, called the extermination order issued respecting the Herero a 'crime against humanity'. See the letter from Bulow to Kaiser Wilhem II, 24 November 1904, quoted in Drechsler, op. cit. n. 20, at p. 164.
67. Hwang Geum Joo v. Japan, 332 F.3d 679 (27 June 2003).
68. The insurance claims were consolidated into a single case, In re Assicurazioni Generali S.P.A. Holocaust Insurance Litigation, No. 1374, 2000 US Dist. LEXIS 17853 (SDNY 2000).
69. M. Bayzler, 'The Holocaust Restitution Movement in Comparative Perspective', 20 Berkeley JIL (2002) p. 11 at pp. 20-21.
70. Princz v. Federal Rep. of Germany, 26 F.3d 66 (DC Cir. 1994).
71. R.J. Battauer, 'The Role of the United States Government in Recent Holocaust Claims Resolution', 29 Berkeley JIL (2002) p. 1 at p. 4.
72. The original class actions were re-filed as separate actions and consolidated as In re Holocaust Victim Assets Litigation, Master Docket No. 96-CIV-4849 (ERK) (MDG), 2000 US Dist. LEXIS 20817 (EDNY 22 November 2000).
73. These were consolidated in March 1999 as In re Austrian and German Bank Holocaust Litigation, No. 98 Civ. 3938, 2001 US Dist. LEXIS 2311 (SDNY 7 March 2001). A claim against a French bank was also filed, Bodner v. Banque Paribas, 114 F. Supp. 2d 117 (EDNY 2000).
74. The cases against private companies for utilizing slave and forced labor were consolidated in In Re Holocaust Era German Industry, Bank and Insurance Litigation, No. 1337, 2000 US LEXIS 11650 (4 August 2000).
75. See Iwanowa v. Ford Motor Co., 67 F. Supp. 2d 424 (DNJ 1999); Burger-Fischer v. Degussa A.G., 65 F. Supp. 2d 248 (DNJ 1999).
76. R. Cohen, 'German Companies Adopt Fund for Slave Laborers Under Nazis', NY Times, 17 February 1999, p. A1.
77. See In re African-American Slave Descendants Litigation, 231 F. Supp. 2d 1357 (2002).
78. Bradford, loc. cit. n. 22, at fn. 57.
79. Bayzler, loc. cit. n. 81, at p. 41.
80. J.K. Olick and B. Coughlin, 'The Politics of Regret: Analytical Frames', in J. Torpey, ed., Politics and the Past (Lanham, Md., Rowman & Littlefield Publishers 2003) p.37.
81. In the Distomo Massacre case, supra n. 13, the German Supreme Court found that in general Germany can be liable for compensation claims as the legal successor of the German Reich.
82. B. Coughlin, 'The Politics of Regret: Analytical Frames', in J. Torpey, ed., Politics and the Past (Lanham, Md., Rowman & Littlefield Publishers 2003) Olick and Coughlin, op. cit. n. 94, at p. 42.
83. 'Symposium: Debates over Group Litigation in Comparative Perspective: What Can We Learn from Each Other?', 11 Duke J Comp. & Int'l L (2001) p. 157 at p. 158.
84. A. Soifer, 'Redress, Progress and the Benchmark Problem', 40 Boston College L Rev. (1998) p. 525.
85. See, e.g., Distomo Massacre case, German Supreme Court, supra n. 13; Hwang Geum Joo v. Japan, supra n. 79.
86. The government filed an amicus curiae petition in support of the petitioners in American Insurance Association v. Garamendi, 123 S.Ct. 2374 (2003).
87. See 'SA Monitor: Institute for Justice and Reconciliation', available at http://www.ijr.org /za-mon/rep-n.html, citing South African government officials including President Mbeki in opposition to US apartheid lawsuits.
88. E. Barkan, 'Restitution and Amending Historical Injustices in International Morality', in Torpey, op. cit. n. 94, p. 91 at p. 92.
89. Slavery continues today in many parts of Africa (Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire, Mauritania, Nigeria, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Ethiopia, Ghana, Niger, Mali, Morocco, Sierra Leone, Togo and Uganda). See US Department of State, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices. Bonded labor is common in areas of Asia and Latin America, while sex slave trafficking is widespread in Europe.
90. See M. Metzler, Slavery: A World History, Vol. II (New York, De Capo Press 1993) pp. 27-32.
91. R.E. Howard-Hassmann, 'Moral Integrity and Reparations for Africa', Human Rights Working Papers No. 16, posted 27 September 2001, available at http://www.du.edu /humanrights/workingpapers/index.html.
92. Black's Law Dictionary, 5th edn. (St. Paul, Minn., West Publishing 1979) p. 1167.
93. M. Whiteman, Damages in International Law, Vol. I (1937, reprinted Buffalo, NY, W.S. Hein & Co. 1978) p. 6.
94. Draft Articles on the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, in Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of Its Fifty-third Session, UNGAOR, 56th Sess., Supp. No. 10, p. 3, UN Doc. A/56/10 (2001) (hereinafter: SR Articles). The United Nations General Assembly adopted Resolution 56/83 on 12 December 2001, commending the articles to the attention of governments 'without prejudice to the question of their future adoption or other appropriate action'. GA Res. 56/83, para. 3 (12 December 2001), available at http://www.un.org /docs.
95. Attribution of an act or omission to a state is discussed in SR Articles 4-11.
96. See D. Shelton, 'Righting Wrongs: Remedies in the Articles on State Responsibility', 96 AJIL (2002) p. 833.
97. SR Articles 42-48.
98. Island of Palmas case (United States v. The Netherlands), 2 UNRIAA 829 (1928).
99. Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa), notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970), Advisory Opinion, ICJ Rep. (1971) p. 16.
100. Case Concerning the Gabçikovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary v. Slovakia), ICJ Rep. (1997) p. 92.
101. 'The Inter-temporal Problem in Public International Law', Resolution adopted by the Institut de Droit International at its Wiesbaden Session, 56 Ann. De l'Institut de Droit Int'l (1975) p. 537.
102. Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, UN Doc. A/CONF. 39/27 (1969), 63 AJIL (1969) p. 875, 8 ILM (1969) p. 679.
103. The polluter pays principle is widely accepted in international environmental law and incorporated in most international environmental agreements. In national law, see Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA), Pub. L. No. 96-510, 94 Stat. 2767 (1980, codified at 42 USC ss. 9601 et seq. (1994)).
104. Vienna Convention for the protection of the Ozone Layer, 22 March 1985, TIAS No. 11097, 25 ILM (1985) p. 1529.
105. Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, 16 September 1987, 26 ILM (1987) p. 1550.
106. Framework Convention on Climate Change, 9 May 1992, 31 ILM (1992) p. 849.
107. C. Bergmann, The History of Reparations (New York, Houghton Mifflin 1927).
108. E. Borchard, The Diplomatic Protection of Citizens Abroad (New York, The Banks Law Publ. Co. 1915) p. 251.
109. The Laws and Customs of War on Land (Hague IV) and Annexed Regulations, 18 October 1907, 36 Stat. 2277, 1 Bevans 631.
110. Treaty of Versailles, 28 June 1919, 2 Bevans 43.
111. See US Dept. of State, Record of Proceedings of the Conference for the Conclusion and Signature of the Treaty of Peace with Japan 82-83 (1951) quoted in In re World War II Era Japanese Forced Labor Litigation, 114 F. Supp. 2d 939, 942 (ND Cal. 2000).
112. The Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, for example, permits communications against States Parties to the Covenant and Protocol, thereby excluding events occurring before the state becomes party to the Covenant. See also Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, 660 UNTS p. 195, 5 ILM (1966) p. 352, Art. 14.
113. See, e.g., Inter-Am. Comm'n Hum.Rts, Res. 74/90, Case 9850 (Argentina), 4 October 1990, Ann. Rep. Inter-Am. Comm'n Hum. Rts. 1990-1991, OEA/Ser.L/V/II.79 rev. 1, doc. 12, 22 February 1991.
114. The London Agreement defined crimes against peace in Art. VI as 'planning, preparation, initiation, or waging a war of aggression, or a war in violation of international treaties, agreements, assurances, or participation in a common plan or conspiracy for the accomplishment of any of the foregoing'. The charge involving crimes against humanity was limited to acts committed between September 1939 and April 1945, i.e., during wartime. For the court's rejection of a defense based on nullum crimen sine lege see 'The Justice case' (case 3), Opinion and Judgment, Trials of War Criminals Before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals Under Control Council Law No. 10, 1946-49, Vol. III (Washington, DC, US Government Printing Office 1951) pp. 954-984.
115. See 'Statement of the United States on Withdrawal of Recognition from the Government of the Republic of China (Taiwan)', 80 Dept. State Bull. (1979) p. 26.
116. See, e.g., 'Retroactivity and Administrative Rulemaking', 40 Duke LJ (1991) p. 106.
117. Despite This Lack of Precedent, the Tribunal Was Able to Determine That Canada Was Liable for Damage Caused by the Lawful Activities of the Trail Smelter Drawing Upon Analogies from Inter-state Cases in Federal States
118. R.H. Fallon, Jr. and D.J. Meltzer, 'New Law, Non-Retroactivity, and Constitutional Remedies', 104 Harv. L Rev. (1991) p. 1733.
119. See Landgraf v. USI Film Prods., 511 US 244, 265 (1994).
120. See D.J. Meltzer, 'Deterring Constitutional Violations by Law Enforcement Officials: Plaintiffs and Defendants as Private Attorneys General', 88 Colum. L Rev. (1988) p. 247.
121. INS v. St. Cyr, 533 US 289 (2001) at p. 321.
122. Linkletter v. Walker, 381 US 618 (1965) at p. 629. No retroactive application of criminal statutes is permitted. Boule v. City of Columbia, 378 US 347 (1964) at p. 363 (retroactive application of criminal statute to conduct not criminal at the time it was undertaken denies due process).
123. Teague v. Lane, 489 US 288 (1989) at pp. 314-315; Stovall v. Denno, 388 US 293 (1967) at p. 297.
124. 3 UST 3169, 136 UNTS p. 45.
125. Cal. Civ. Proc. Code s. 354.6 (West 2000).
126. See http://www.law.whittier.edu/sypo/final/lawsuit.htm.
127. In re World War II Era Japanese Forced Labor Litigation, 114 F. Supp. 2d 939 (ND Cal. 2000).
128. Hwang Geum Joo v. Japan, supra n. 79.
129. In 1925 Japan ratified the International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women and Children (1921); the International Agreement for the Suppression of the White Slave Traffic (1904); and the International Convention for the Suppression of the White Slave Traffic of 1910 as reaffirmed in 1921. Japan was not a party to the 1926 Convention to Suppress the Slave Trade and Slavery, 46 Stat. 2183, 60 LNTS p. 253
130. Harring, loc. cit. n. 20, at p. 406. Note, however, that even the German Chancellor at the time, Count von Bulow, called the extermination order a 'crime against humanity'. See infra n. 78.
131. Hague Convention II with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War by Land, 29 July 1989, Art. 2.
132. Pakenham, op. cit. n. 20, at p. 605.
133. Harring, loc. cit. n. 20, at p. 409.
134. See United Nations Institute for Namibia, Namibia: Perspectives for National Reconstruction and Development (Lusaka 1986) p. 106. See also D. Pankhurst, A Resolvable Conflict: The Politics of Land in Namibia (Bradford, University of Bradford 1996); F. Adams, et al., The Land Issue in Namibia: An Inquiry (Windhoek, Namibia Institute for Social and Economic Research 1990).
135. Cited in Sir G. MacMunn, Slavery Through the Ages (London, Nicholson & Watson 1938) pp. 98-99.
136. Treaty of Peace, 24 December 1814, Gr. Brit.-US, Art. 10, 8 Stat. 218, 63 Consol. TS 421.
137. Declaration (Vienna, 8 February 1815) Annexed to the General Treaty of the Congress (Annex VI to the Treaty of Vienna), 3 Consol. TS 473.
138. Act of 15 May 1820, ch. 113, Rev. Stat ss. 5375, 5376, 3 Stat. 600 (1820).
139. 40 US (15 Pet.) 518.
140. Treaty for the Suppression of the African Slave Trade (7 April 1862), US-Gr. Brit, 12 Stat. 1225, TS No. 126.
141. The General Act of the Conference of Berlin Concerning the Congo, 26 February 1885, 10 Martens Nouveau Recueil (ser. 2) p. 414, reprinted in 3 AJIL (1909) p. 7.
142. General Act for the Repression of the African Slave Trade, 2 July 1890, 27 Stat. 886, TS No. 383, 1 Bevans 134.
143. Art. LXII.
144. Convention to Suppress the Slave Trade and Slavery, 46 Stat. 2183, 60 LNTS p. 253.
145. The Convention Revising the General Act of Berlin and the General Act and Declaration of Brussels, opened for signature, 10 September 1919, 49 Stat. 3027, TS No. 877.
146. UN Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery, 7 September 1956, 18 UST 3201, 266 UNTS p. 3, TIAS No. 6418.
147. W. Branch, 'Reparations for Slavery: A Dream Deferred', 3 San Diego ILJ (2002) p. 177.
148. A. de Tocqueville noted the impact of slavery on racism in 1835: 'The Negro makes a thousand fruitless efforts to insinuate himself into a society that repulses him; he adapts himself to his oppressors' tastes, adopting their opinions and hoping by imitation to join their community. From birth he has been told that his race is naturally inferior to the white man and almost believing that, he holds himself in contempt. He sees a trace of slavery in his every feature, and if he could he would gladly repudiate himself entirely.' Democracy in America, ch. XVIII.
149. Dred Scott, 60 US 406-7.
150. J. van Dyke, 'Reparations for the Descendants of American Slaves under International Law', in Winbush, op. cit. n. 12, p. 57 at p. 58.
151. See C.M. Powell, 'Blinded by Color: The New Equal Protection, the Second Deconstruction, and Affirmative Inaction', 51 Univ. Miami L Rev. (1997) p. 1992; R.M. Wummel, 'Escaping the Dead Hand of the Past: The Need for Retroactive Application of the Civil Rights Act of 1991', 19 J Legis. (1993) p. 223.
152. I.J. Ozer, 'Reparations for African Americans', 41 How. LJ (1998) p. 479 at pp. 488-492.
153. A. Burrows, The Law of Restitution (Oxford, Oxford University Press 1993) p. 7; K. Barker, 'Unjust Enrichment: Containing the Beast', 15 Oxford J Legal Stud. (1995) p. 457; N. McBride and P. McGrath, 'The Nature of Restitution', 15 Oxford J Legal Stud. (1995) p. 33.
154. G.E. Palmer, The Law of Restitution, Cumulative Supp. No. 2 (Bostin, Little, Brown 1996) 1.7 at p. 26.
155. See S. Hedley, 'Unjust Enrichment', 54 Cambridge LJ (1995) p. 578. H. Dagan, Unjust Enrichment: A Study of Private Law and Public Values (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press 1997) p. 14; H. Dagan, 'The Distributive Foundation of Corrective Justice', 98 Mich. L Rev. (1999) p. 138; I.M. Jackman, 'Restitution for Wrongs', 48 Cambridge LJ (1989) p. 302.
156. D.N. Fagan, 'Note: Achieving Restitution: The Potential Unjust Enrichment Claims of Indigenous Peoples against Multinational Corporations', 76 NY Univ. L Rev. (2001) p. 626. Note that unjust enrichment can be one of the factual bases on which restitution is claimed. See A. Kull, 'Rationalizing Restitution', 83 Cal. L Rev. (1995) p. 1191; J. Beatson, The Uses and Abuse of Unjust Enrichment: Essays on the Law of Restitution (Oxford, Oxford University Press 1991) p. 209; D. Laycock, 'The Scope and Significance of Restitution', 67 Tex. L Rev. (1989) p. 1277.
157. R.S. Browne, 'Wealth Distribution and Its Impact on Minorities', in R.F. America, ed., The Wealth of Races (Westport, Conn., Greenwood Press 1990) p. 3.
158. One economist has estimated the present day value of slave labor in the US at between US$448 and 995 billion. J. Marketti, 'Black Equity in the Slave Industry', 2 Rev. of Black Pol. Econ. (1972) p. 43 at p. 44. More recently, Richard America provided an estimate of between US$5 and 10 trillion. See W. Raspberry, 'Calculating Reparations for Slavery', Chi. Trib., 3 June 1997, p. 13.
159. See In re African-American Slave Descendants Litigation, supra n. 91.
160. K. Outterson, 'Slave Taxes', in Winbush, op. cit. n. 12, at p. 135.
161. R.M. Spitzer, 'The African Holocaust: Should Europe Pay Reparations to Africa for Colonialism and Slavery?', 35 Vand. J Transnat'l L (2002) p. 1313.
162. E. Yamamoto, 'Racial Reparations: Japanese American Redress and African American Claims', 40 Boston College L Rev. (1998) p. 477.
163. See S.R. Ratner, 'New Democracies, Old Atrocities: An Inquiry in International Law', 87 Geo. LJ (1999) p. 707; C. Hesse and R. Post, eds., Human Rights in Political Transitions: Gettysburg to Bosnia (New York, Zone Books 1999); K. Christie, The South African Truth Commission (Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan 2000) p. 44.