Commonality and variability in the structural attributes of moist temperate old-growth forests: A global review

Forest Ecology and Management

Volumn 291, Issue , 2013, Pages 458-479

  Burrascano, Sabina ^a   Keeton, William S ^b   Sabatini, Francesco M ^a   Blasi, Carlo ^a  

^a SAPIENZA UNIVERSITY OF ROME   (Italy)

^b UNIVERSITY OF VERMONT   (United States)

Author keywords

Biodiversity; Carbon sequestration; CWD; Forest dynamics; LAB; Late successional forests; Literature search; LLT; QMD; Sustainable forest management

Indexed keywords

CARBON SEQUESTRATION; CWD; FOREST DYNAMICS; LAB; LATE-SUCCESSIONAL FORESTS; LITERATURE SEARCH; LLT; QMD; SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT;

BIODIVERSITY; ECOLOGY;

FORESTRY;

ABOVEGROUND BIOMASS; ABUNDANCE; AGE CLASS; BASAL AREA; CARBON SEQUESTRATION; COARSE WOODY DEBRIS; CONSERVATION PLANNING; DATA SET; ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS; FOREST DYNAMICS; FOREST MANAGEMENT; GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE; LAND USE CHANGE; LITERATURE REVIEW; MONTE CARLO ANALYSIS; OLD-GROWTH FOREST; RESEARCH WORK; SUCCESSION; SUSTAINABLE FORESTRY; TEMPERATE FOREST;

BIOMASS; FORESTS; GROWTH; MOISTURE; SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT;

CENTRAL ASIA; RUSSIAN FEDERATION; WEST ASIA;

EID: 84873875529     PISSN: 03781127     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.foreco.2012.11.020     Document Type: Review

References (171)

1. Abrams M.D., Orwig D.A. A 300-year history of disturbance and canopy recruitment for co-occurring white pine and hemlock on the Allegheny Plateau, USA. Journal of Ecology 1996, 84:353-363.
2. Abrams M.D., Orwig D.A., Dockry M.J. Dendroecology and successional status of two contrasting old-growth oak forests in the Blue Ridge mountains, USA. Canadian Journal of Forest Research - Revue Canadienne De Recherche Forestiere 1997, 27:994-1002.
3. Abrams M.D., Ruffner C.M., DeMeo T.E. Dendroecology and species co-existence in an old-growth Quercus-Acer-Tilia talus slope forest in the central Appalachians, USA. Forest Ecology and Management 1998, 106:9-18.
4. Abrams M.D., Copenheaver C.A., Terazawa K., Umeki K., Takiya M., Akashi N. A 370-year dendroecological history of an old-growth Abies-Acer-Quercus forest in Hokkaido, northern Japan. Canadian Journal of Forest Research - Revue Canadienne De Recherche Forestiere 1999, 29:1891-1899.
5. Adams H.S., Stephenson S.L. Old-growth red spruce communities in the mid-appalachians. Vegetatio 1989, 85:45-56.
6. Aiba S., Hill D.A., Agetsuma N. Comparison between old-growth stands and secondary stands regenerating after clear-felling in warm-temperate forests of Yakushima, southern Japan. Forest Ecology and Management 2001, 140:163-175.
7. Akhavan R., Sagheb-Talebi K., Zenner E., Safavimanesh F. Spatial patterns in different forest development stages of an intact old-growth Oriental beech forest in the Caspian region of Iran. European Journal of Forest Research 2012, 1-12. 10.1007/s10342-10012-10603-z.
8. Allen C.D., Macalady A.K., Chenchouni H., Bachelet D., McDowell N., Vennetier M., Kitzberger T., Rigling A., Breshears D.D., Hogg E.H., Gonzalez P., Fensham R., Zhang Z., Castro J., Demidova N., Lim J.H., Allard G., Running S.W., Semerci A., Cobb N. A global overview of drought and heat-induced tree mortality reveals emerging climate change risks for forests. Forest Ecology and Management 2010, 259:660-684.
9. Armesto J.J., Figueroa J. Stand structure and dynamics in the temperate rain-forests of Chiloe Archipelago, Chile. Journal of Biogeography 1987, 14:367-376.
10. Aude E., Lawesson J.E. Vegetation in Danish Beech forests: the importance of soil, microclimate and management factors, evaluated by variation partitioning. Plant Ecology 1998, 134:53-65.
11. Bale C.L., Williams J.B., Charley J.L. The impact of aspect on forest structure and floristics in some Eastern Australian sites. Forest Ecology and Management 1998, 110:363-377.
12. Barrera M.D., Frangi J.L., Richter L.L., Perdomo M.H., Pinedo L.B. Structural and functional changes in Nothofagus pumilio forests along an altitudinal gradient in Tierra del Fuego, Argentina. Journal of Vegetation Science 2000, 11:179-188.
13. Battles J.J., Armesto J.J., Vann D.R., Zarin D.J., Aravena J.C., Perez C., Johnson A.H. Vegetation composition, structure, and biomass of two unpolluted watersheds in the Cordillera de Piuchue, Chiloe Island, Chile. Plant Ecology 2002, 158:5-19.
14. Bauhus J., Puettmann K., Messier C. Silviculture for old-growth attributes. Forest Ecology and Management 2009, 258:525-537.
15. Beaudet M., Brisson J., Gravel D., Messier C. Effect of a major canopy disturbance on the coexistence of Acer saccharum and Fagus grandifolia in the understorey of an old-growth forest. Journal of Ecology 2007, 95:458-467.
16. Bernadzki E., Bolibok L., Brzeziecki B., Zajaczkowski J., Zybura H. Compositional dynamics of natural forests in the Bialowieza National Park, northeastern Poland. Journal of Vegetation Science 1998, 9:229-238.
17. Binkley D., Olsson U., Rochelle R., Stohlgren T., Nikolov N. Structure, production and resource use in some old-growth spruce/fir forests in the front range of the Rocky Mountains, USA. Forest Ecology and Management 2003, 172:271-279.
18. Bobiec A. Living stands and dead wood in the Bialowieza forest: suggestions for restoration management. Forest Ecology and Management 2002, 165:125-140.
19. Boncina A. Comparison of structure and biodiversity in the Rajhenav virgin forest remnant and managed forest in the Dinaric region of Slovenia. Global Ecology and Biogeography 2000, 9:201-211.
20. Brang P. Virgin forests as a knowledge source for central European silviculture: reality or myth?. Forest Snow and Landscape Research 2005, 79:19-32.
21. Burgman M.A. Characterisation and delineation of the eucalypt old-growth forest estate in Australia: a review. Forest Ecology and Management 1996, 83:149-161.
22. Burrascano S., Lombardi F., Marchetti M. Old-growth forest structure and deadwood: are they indicators of plant species composition? A case study from central Italy. Plant Biosystems 2008, 142:313-323.
23. Burrascano S., Rosati L., Blasi C. Plant species diversity in Mediterranean old-growth forests: a case study from central Italy. Plant Biosystems 2009, 143:190-200.
24. Burrascano S., Sabatini F.M., Blasi C. Testing indicators of sustainable forest management on understorey composition and diversity in southern Italy through variation partitioning. Plant Ecology 2011, 212:829-841.
25. Busing R.T. Composition, structure and diversity of cove forest stands in the Great Smoky Mountains: a patch dynamics perspective. Journal of Vegetation Science 1998, 9:881-890.
26. Busing R.T., Fujimori T. Biomass, production and woody detritus in an old coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) forest. Plant Ecology 2005, 177:177-188.
27. Busing R.T., White P.S. Effects of area on old-growth forest attributes - implications for the equilibrium landscape concept. Landscape Ecology 1993, 8:119-126.
28. Carmona M.R., Armesto J.J., Aravena J.C., Perez C.A. Coarse woody debris biomass in successional and primary temperate forests in Chiloe Island, Chile. Forest Ecology and Management 2002, 164:265-275.
29. Chen J.Q., Bradshaw G.A. Forest structure in space: a case study of an old growth spruce-fir forest in Changbaishan Natural Reserve, PR China. Forest Ecology and Management 1999, 120:219-233.
30. Cheng D.L., Wang G.X., Li T., Tang Q.L., Gong C.M. Relationships among the stem, aboveground and total biomass across Chinese forests. Journal of Integrative Plant Biology 2007, 49:1573-1579.
31. Choi J., Lorimer C.G., Vanderwerker J.M. A simulation of the development and restoration of old-growth structural features in northern hardwoods. Forest Ecology and Management 2007, 249:204-220.
32. Christensen M., Hahn K., Mountford E.P., Odor P., Standovar T., Rozenbergar D., Diaci J., Wijdeven S., Meyer P., Winter S., Vrska T. Dead wood in European beech (Fagus sylvatica) forest reserves. Forest Ecology and Management 2005, 210:267-282.
33. Commarmot B., Bachofen H., Bundziak Y., Bürgi A., Shparyk Y., Sukhariuk D., Viter R., Zingg A. Structures of virgin and managed beech forests in Uholka (Ukraine) and Sihlwald (Switzerland): a comparative study. Forest Snow and Landscape Research 2005, 79:45-56.
34. Cooper C.F. Changes in vegetation, structure, and growth of southwestern pine forests since white settlement. Ecological Monographs 1960, 30:129-164.
35. Cornwell W.K., Cornelissen J.H.C., Allison S.D., Bauhus J., Eggleton P., Preston C.M., Scarff F., Weedon J.T., Wirth C., Zanne A.E. Plant traits and wood fates across the globe: rotted, burned, or consumed?. Global Change Biology 2009, 15:2431-2449.
36. Covington W.W., Fule P.Z., Moore M.M., Hart S.C., Kolb T.E., Mast J.N., Sackett S.S., Wagner M.R. Restoring ecosystem health in ponderosa pine forests of the southwest. Journal of Forestry 1997, 95:23-29.
37. Dahir S.E., Lorimer C.G. Variation in canopy gap formation among developmental stages of northern hardwood stands. Canadian Journal of Forest Research - Revue Canadienne De Recherche Forestiere 1996, 26:1875-1892.
38. Dai L.M., Qi L., Wang Q.W., Su D.K., Yu D.P., Wang Y., Ye Y.J., Jiang S.W., Zhao W. Changes in forest structure and composition on Changbai Mountain in Northeast China. Annals of Forest Science 2011, 68:889-897.
39. D'Amato A.W., Orwig D.A., Foster D.R. The influence of successional processes and disturbance on the structure of Tsuga canadensis forests. Ecological Applications 2008, 18:1182-1199.
40. D'Amato A.W., Orwig D.A., Foster D.R. Understory vegetation in old-growth and second-growth Tsuga canadensis forests in western Massachusetts. Forest Ecology and Management 2009, 257:1043-1052.
41. Das A., Battles J., Stephenson N.L., van Mantgem P.J. The contribution of competition to tree mortality in old-growth coniferous forests. Forest Ecology and Management 2011, 261:1203-1213.
42. Davis M.R., Allen R.B., Clinton P.W. Carbon storage along a stand development sequence in a New Zealand Nothofagus forest. Forest Ecology and Management 2003, 177:313-321.
43. Donato D.C., Campbell J.L., Franklin J.F. Multiple successional pathways and precocity in forest development: can some forests be born complex?. Journal of Vegetation Science 2012, 23:576-584.
44. Donoso P.J., Lusk C.H. Differential effects of emergent Nothofagus dombeyi on growth and basal area of canopy species in an old-growth temperate rainforest. Journal of Vegetation Science 2007, 18:675-684.
45. Donoso P.J., Nyland R.D. Seedling density according to structure, dominance and understory cover in old-growth forest stands of the evergreen forest type in the coastal range of Chile. Revista Chilena De Historia Natural 2005, 78:51-63.
46. Druckenbrod D.L., Shugart H.H., Davies I. Spatial pattern and process in forest stands within the Virginia piedmont. Journal of Vegetation Science 2005, 16:37-48.
47. Fajardo A., de Graaf R. Tree dynamics in canopy gaps in old-growth forests of Nothofagus pumilio in Southern Chile. Plant Ecology 2004, 173:95-105.
48. FAO, 2010. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010. Main Report. FAO Forestry Paper. FAO, Rome, p. 340.
49. Field C.B., Kaduk J. The carbon balance of an old-growth forest: building across approaches. Ecosystems 2004, 7:525-533.
50. Fisk M.C., Zak D.R., Crow T.R. Nitrogen storage and cycling in old- and second-growth northern hardwood forests. Ecology 2002, 83:73-87.
51. Foster B.C., Wang D., Keeton W.S. An exploratory, post-harvest comparison of ecological and economic characteristics of forest stewardship council certified and uncertified northern hardwood stands. Journal of Sustainable Forestry 2008, 26:171-191.
52. Franklin, J.F., Cromack, K., Denison, W., McKee, A., Maser, C., Sedell, J., Swanson, F., Juday, G., 1981. Ecological characteristics of old-growth Douglas-fir forests. In: General Technical Report PNW-118. US Department of Agriculture, Portland, OR, USA.
53. Franklin J.F., Shugart H.H., Harmon M.E. Tree death as an ecological process. BioScience 1987, 37:550-556.
54. Franklin J.F., Spies T.A., Van Pelt R., Carey A.B., Thornburgh D.A., Berg D.R., Lindenmayer D.B., Harmon M.E., Keeton W.S., Shaw D.C., Bible K., Chen J.Q. Disturbances and structural development of natural forest ecosystems with silvicultural implications, using Douglas-Fir forests as an example. Forest Ecology and Management 2002, 155:399-423.
55. Goebel P.C., Hix D.M. Development of mixed-oak forests in southeastern Ohio: a comparison of second-growth and old-growth forests. Forest Ecology and Management 1996, 84:1-21.
56. Goodburn J.M., Lorimer C.G. Cavity trees and coarse woody debris in old-growth and managed northern hardwood forests in Wisconsin and Michigan. Canadian Journal of Forest Research - Revue Canadienne De Recherche Forestiere 1998, 28:427-438.
57. Gronewold C.A., D'Amato A.W., Palik B.J. The influence of cutting cycle and stocking level on the structure and composition of managed old-growth northern hardwoods. Forest Ecology and Management 2010, 259:1151-1160.
58. Grove S.J. Saproxylic insect ecology and the sustainable management of forests. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 2002, 33:1-23.
59. Gutierrez A.G., Armesto J.J., Aravena J.C. Disturbance and regeneration dynamics of an old-growth North Patagonian rain forest in Chiloe Island, Chile. Journal of Ecology 2004, 92:598-608.
60. Gutierrez A.G., Armesto J.J., Aravena J.C., Carmona M., Carrasco N.V., Christie D.A., Pena M.P., Perez C., Huth A. Structural and environmental characterization of old-growth temperate rainforests of northern Chiloe Island, Chile: regional and global relevance. Forest Ecology and Management 2009, 258:376-388.
61. Harmon M.E., Franklin J.F., Swanson F.J., Sollins P., Gregory S.V., Lattin J.D., Anderson N.H., Cline S.P., Aumen N.G., Sedell J.R., Lienkaemper G.W., Cromack K., Cummin K.W. Ecology of Coarse Woody Debris in Temperate Ecosystems. Advances in Ecological Research 1986, 15:133-302.
62. Hao Z.Q., Zhang J., Song B., Ye J., Li B.H. Vertical structure and spatial associations of dominant tree species in an old-growth temperate forest. Forest Ecology and Management 2007, 252:1-11.
63. Hatanaka N., Wright W., Loyn R.H., Mac Nally R. 'Ecologically complex carbon' - linking biodiversity values, carbon storage and habitat structure in some austral temperate forests. Global Ecology and Biogeography 2011, 20:260-271.
64. Heiri C., Wolf A., Rohrer L., Bugmann H. Forty years of natural dynamics in Swiss beech forests: structure, composition, and the influence of former management. Ecological Applications 2009, 19:1920-1934.
65. Holeksa J., Saniga M., Szwagrzyk J., Dziedzic T., Ferenc S., Wodka M. Altitudinal variability of stand structure and regeneration in the subalpine spruce forests of the Pol'ana biosphere reserve, Central Slovakia. European Journal of Forest Research 2007, 126:303-313.
66. Holeksa J., Saniga M., Szwagrzyk J., Czerniak M., Staszynska K., Kapusta P. A giant tree stand in the West Carpathians - an exception or a relic of formerly widespread mountain European forests?. Forest Ecology and Management 2009, 257:1577-1585.
67. Hoover C.M., Leak W.B., Keel B.G. Benchmark carbon stocks from old-growth forests in northern New England, USA. Forest Ecology and Management 2012, 266:108-114.
68. Hoshino D., Nishimura N., Yamamoto S. Age, size structure and spatial pattern of major tree species in an old-growth Chamaecyparis obtusa forest, Central Japan. Forest Ecology and Management 2001, 152:31-43.
69. Hou J.H., Mi X.C., Liu C.R., Ma K.P. Spatial patterns and associations in a Quercus-Betula forest in northern China. Journal of Vegetation Science 2004, 15:407-414.
70. Houghton R.A. Aboveground forest biomass and the global carbon balance. Global Change Biology 2005, 11:945-958.
71. Hudiburg T., Law B., Turner D.P., Campbell J., Donato D.C., Duane M. Carbon dynamics of Oregon and Northern California forests and potential land-based carbon storage. Ecological Applications 2009, 19:163-180.
72. Hunter Jr., M.L., 1999. Maintaining biodiversity in forest ecosystems. Maintaining biodiversity in forest ecosystems, vol. i-xiv, pp. 1-698.
73. Innes J.L. Structure of evergreen temperate rain forest on the Taitao Peninsula, southern Chile. Journal of Biogeography 1992, 19:555-562.
74. Jones E.W. The structure and reproduction of the virgin forest of the north temperate zone. New Phytologist 1945, 44:130-148.
75. Kane V.R., Lutz J.A., Roberts S.L., Smith D.F., McGaughey R.J., Povak N.A., Brooks M.L. Landscape-scale effects of fire severity on mixed-conifer and red fir forest structure in Yosemite National Park. Forest Ecology and Management 2013, 287:17-31.
76. Keddy P.A., Drummond C.G. Ecological properties for the evaluation, management, and restoration of temperate deciduous forest ecosystems. Ecological Applications 1996, 6:748-762.
77. Keeton W.S. Managing for late-successional/old-growth characteristics in northern hardwood-conifer forests. Forest Ecology and Management 2006, 235:129-142.
78. Keeton W.S., Franklin J.F. Do remnant old-growth trees accelerate rates of succession in mature Douglas-fir forests?. Ecological Monographs 2005, 75:103-118.
79. Keeton W.S., Kraft C.E., Warren D.R. Mature and old-growth riparian forests: structure, dynamics, and effects on adirondack stream habitats. Ecological Applications 2007, 17:852-868.
80. Keeton W.S., Chernyavskyy M., Gratzer G., Main-Knorn M., Shpylchak M., Bihun Y. Structural characteristics and aboveground biomass of old-growth spruce-fir stands in the eastern Carpathian mountains, Ukraine. Plant Biosystems 2010, 144:148-159.
81. Keeton W.S., Whitman A.A., McGee G.C., Goodale C.L. Late-successional biomass development in Northern Hardwood-Conifer forests of the Northeastern United States. Forest Science 2011, 57:489-505.
82. Keith H., Mackey B.G., Lindenmayer D.B. Re-evaluation of forest biomass carbon stocks and lessons from the world's most carbon-dense forests. Proceedings of the National academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2009, 106:11635-11640.
83. Knorn, J., Kuemmerle, T., Radeloff, V.C., Keeton, W.S., Gancz, V., Biris, I.A., Svoboda, M., Griffiths, P., Hagatis, A., Hostert, P., in press. Continued loss of temperate old-growth forests in the Romanian Carpathians despite an increasing protected area network. Environmental Conservation. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017.S0376892912000355.
84. Král K., Janik D., Vrska T., Adam D., Hort L., Unar P., Samonil P. Local variability of stand structural features in beech dominated natural forests of Central Europe: implications for sampling. Forest Ecology and Management 2010, 260:2196-2203.
85. Kucbel S., Saniga M., Jaloviar P., Vencurik J. Stand structure and temporal variability in old-growth beech-dominated forests of the northwestern Carpathians: a 40-years perspective. Forest Ecology and Management 2012, 264:125-133.
86. Kupfer J.A., Kirsch S.W. Heterogeneity of forest characteristics in primary and secondary forest stands on the third Chickasaw loess bluff, Tennessee. Physical Geography 1998, 19:35-54.
87. Lamedica S., Lingua E., Popa I., Motta R., Carrer M. Spatial structure in four Norway spruce stands with different management history in the Alps and Carpathians. Silva Fennica 2011, 45:865-873.
88. Larson A.J., Churchill D. Tree spatial patterns in fire-frequent forests of western North America, including mechanisms of pattern formation and implications for designing fuel reduction and restoration treatments. Forest Ecology and Management 2012, 267:74-92.
89. Larsson, T.B., 2001. Biodiversity evaluation tools for European forests. In: Franc, A., Laroussinie, O., Karjalainen, T. (Eds.), Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest Management at the Forest Management Unit Level, pp. 75-81.
90. Lassauce A., Paillet Y., Jactel H., Bouget C. Deadwood as a surrogate for forest biodiversity: meta-analysis of correlations between deadwood volume and species richness of saproxylic organisms. Ecological Indicators 2011, 11:1027-1039.
91. Lindenmayer D.B., Cunningham R.B., Donnelly C.F., Franklin J.F. Structural features of old-growth Australian montane ash forests. Forest Ecology and Management 2000, 134:189-204.
92. Lusk C.H., Smith B. Life history differences and tree species coexistence in an old-growth New Zealand rain forest. Ecology 1998, 79:795-806.
93. Luyssaert S., Schulze E.D., Borner A., Knohl A., Hessenmoller D., Law B.E., Ciais P., Grace J. Old-growth forests as global carbon sinks. Nature 2008, 455:213-215.
94. Mackensen J., Bauhus J., Webber E. Decomposition rates of coarse woody debris - a review with particular emphasis on Australian tree species. Australian Journal of Botany 2003, 51:27-37.
95. Manabe T., Nishimura N., Miura M., Yamamoto S. Population structure and spatial patterns for trees in a temperate old-growth evergreen broad-leaved forest in Japan. Plant Ecology 2000, 151:181-197.
96. Marage D., Lemperiere G. The management of snags: a comparison in managed and unmanaged ancient forests of the Southern French Alps. Annals of Forest Science 2005, 62:135-142.
97. Martínez Pastur G., Cellini J.M., Peri P.L., Vukasovic R.F., Fernández M.C. Timber production of Nothofagus pumilio forests by a shelterwood system in Tierra del Fuego (Argentina). Forest Ecology and Management 2000, 134:153-162.
98. McCarthy B.C., Hammer C.A., Kauffman G.L., Cantino P.D. Vegetation patterns and structure of an old-growth forest in southeastern Ohio. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 1987, 114:33-45.
99. McCarthy B.C., Small C.J., Rubino D.L. Composition, structure and dynamics of Dysart Woods, an old-growth mixed mesophytic forest of southeastern Ohio. Forest Ecology and Management 2001, 140:193-213.
100. McGee G.G., Leopold D.J., Nyland R.D. Structural characteristics of old-growth, maturing, and partially cut northern hardwood forests. Ecological Applications 1999, 9:1316-1329.
101. McKenny H.C., Keeton W.S., Donovan T.M. Effects of structural complexity enhancement on eastern red-backed salamander (Plethodon cinereus) populations in northern hardwood forests. Forest Ecology and Management 2006, 230:186-196.
102. MCPFE, 2003. Improved pan-European indicators for sustainable forest management as adopted by the MCPFE Expert Level Meeting. In: Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe, Vienna.
103. Merino A., Real C., Alvarez-Gonzalez J.G., Rodriguez-Guitian M.A. Forest structure and C stocks in natural Fagus sylvatica forest in southern Europe: the effects of past management. Forest Ecology and Management 2007, 250:206-214.
104. Mikusinski G., Angelstam P. Economic geography, forest distribution, and woodpecker diversity in central Europe. Conservation Biology 1998, 12:200-208.
105. Mitchell R., Engstrom T., Sharitz R.R., De Steven D., Hiers K., Cooper R., Kirkman L.K. Old forests and endangered woodpeckers: old-growth in the southern coastal plain. Natural Areas Journal 2009, 29:301-310.
106. Motta, R., Berretti, R., Castagneri, D., Lingua, E., Nola, P., Vacchiano, G., 2010. Stand and coarse woody debris dynamics in subalpine Norway spruce forests withdrawn from regular management. Annals of Forest Science 67.
107. Motta R., Berretti R., Castagneri D., Dukic V., Garbarino M., Govedar Z., Lingua E., Maunaga Z., Meloni F. Toward a definition of the range of variability of central European mixed Fagus-Abies-Picea forests: the nearly steady-state forest of Lom (Bosnia and Herzegovina). Canadian Journal of Forest Research - Revue Canadienne De Recherche Forestiere 2011, 41:1871-1884.
108. Nagel T.A., Svoboda M., Diaci J. Regeneration patterns after intermediate wind disturbance in an old-growth Fagus-Abies forest in southeastern Slovenia. Forest Ecology and Management 2006, 226:268-278.
109. Nagel T.A., Svoboda M., Rugani T., Diaci J. Gap regeneration and replacement patterns in an old-growth Fagus-Abies forest of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Plant Ecology 2010, 208:307-318.
110. Narukawa Y., Yamamoto S.I. Gap formation, microsite variation and the conifer seedling occurrence in a subalpine old-growth forest, central Japan. Ecological Research 2001, 16:617-625.
111. Nilsson S.G., Niklasson M., Hedin J., Aronsson G., Gutowski J.M., Linder P., Ljungberg H., Mikusinski G., Ranius T. Densities of large living and dead trees in old-growth temperate and boreal forests. Forest Ecology and Management 2002, 161:189-204.
112. North M.P., Keeton W.S. Emulating natural disturbance regimes: an emerging approach for sustainable forest management. Patterns and Processes in Forest Landscapes - Multiple Use and Sustainable Management 2008, 341-372. Springer, The Netherlands. R. Lafortezza, J. Chen, G. Sanesi, T.R. Crow (Eds.).
113. North M., Chen J.Q., Oakley B., Song B., Rudnicki M., Gray A., Innes J. Forest stand structure and pattern of old-growth western hemlock/Douglas-fir and mixed-conifer forests. Forest Science 2004, 50:299-311.
114. North M., Innes J., Zald H. Comparison of thinning and prescribed fire restoration treatments to Sierran mixed-conifer historic conditions. Canadian Journal of Forest Research - Revue Canadienne De Recherche Forestiere 2007, 37:331-342.
115. Odor P., Heilmann-Clausen J., Christensen M., Aude E., van Dort K.W., Piltaver A., Siller I., Veerkamp M.T., Walleyn R., Standovar T., van Hees A.F.M., Kosec J., Matocec N., Kraigher H., Grebenc T. Diversity of dead wood inhabiting fungi and bryophytes in semi-natural beech forests in Europe. Biological Conservation 2006, 131:58-71.
116. Oliver C.D., Larson B.C. Forest Stand Dynamics 1990, McGraw-Hill, New York.
117. Olson D.M., Dinerstein E., Wikramanayake E.D., Burgess N.D., Powell G.V.N., Underwood E.C., D'Amico J.A., Itoua I., Strand H.E., Morrison J.C., Loucks C.J., Allnutt T.F., Ricketts T.H., Kura Y., Lamoreux J.F., Wettengel W.W., Hedao P., Kassem K.R. Terrestrial ecoregions of the worlds: a new map of life on Earth. Bioscience 2001, 51:933-938.
118. Orwig D.A., Cogbill C.V., Foster D.R., O'Keefe J.F. Variations in old-growth structure and definitions: forest dynamics on Wachusett Mountain, Massachusetts. Ecological Applications 2001, 11:437-452.
119. Paluch J.G. The spatial pattern of a natural European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.)-silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) forest: a patch-mosaic perspective. Forest Ecology and Management 2007, 253:161-170.
120. Pan Y.D., Birdsey R.A., Fang J.Y., Houghton R., Kauppi P.E., Kurz W.A., Phillips O.L., Shvidenko A., Lewis S.L., Canadell J.G., Ciais P., Jackson R.B., Pacala S.W., McGuire A.D., Piao S.L., Rautiainen A., Sitch S., Hayes D. A large and persistent carbon sink in the world's forests. Science 2011, 333:988-993.
121. Parker G.R., Leopold D.J., Eichenberger J.K. Tree dynamics in an old-growth, deciduous forest. Forest Ecology and Management 1985, 11:31-57.
122. Persiani A.M., Audisio P., Lunghini D., Maggi O., Granito V.M., Biscaccianti A.B., Chiavetta U., Marchetti M. Linking taxonomical and functional biodiversity of saproxylic fungi and beetles in broad-leaved forests in southern Italy with varying management histories. Plant Biosystems 2010, 144:250-261.
123. Peterken, G.F., 1996. Natural Woodland: Ecology and Conservation in Northern Temperate Regions. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK.
124. Petritan A.M., Biris I.A., Merce O., Turcu D.O., Petritan I.C. Structure and diversity of a natural temperate sessile oak (Quercus petraea L.) - European Beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) forest. Forest Ecology and Management 2012, 280:140-149.
125. Pollmann W. Stand structure and dendroecology of an old-growth Nothofagus forest in Conguillio National Park, south Chile. Forest Ecology and Management 2003, 176:87-103.
126. Pollmann W., Veblen T.T. Nothofagus regeneration dynamics in south-central Chile: a test of a general model. Ecological Monographs 2004, 74:615-634.
127. R Development Core Team, 2010. R: a language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria.
128. Rebertus A.J., Veblen T.T. Structure and tree-fall gap dynamics of old-growth nothofagus forests in tierra-del-fuego, argentina. Journal of Vegetation Science 1993, 4:641-654.
129. Rhemtulla J.M., Mladenoff D.J., Clayton M.K. Historical forest baselines reveal potential for continued carbon sequestration. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2009, 106:6082-6087.
130. Rozas V. Regeneration patterns, dendroecology, and forest-use history in an old-growth beech-oak lowland forest in Northern Spain. Forest Ecology and Management 2003, 182:175-194.
131. Ruffell J., Sedgeley J., Parsons S. The potential availability of roosting sites for lesser short-tailed bats (Mystacina tuberculata) on Kapiti Island, New Zealand: implications for a translocation. New Zealand Journal of Zoology 2007, 34:219-226.
132. Ruffner C.M., Abrams M.D. Disturbance history and stand dynamics along a topographic gradient in old-growth hemlock-northern Hardwood Forests of the Allegheny Plateau, USA. Natural Areas Journal 2003, 23:98-113.
133. Salas C., Garcia O. Modelling height development of mature Nothofagus obliqua. Forest Ecology and Management 2006, 229:1-6.
134. Salas C., Lemay V., Nunez P., Pacheco P., Espinosa A. Spatial patterns in an old-growth Nothofagus obliqua forest in south-central Chile. Forest Ecology and Management 2006, 231:38-46.
135. Sano J. Age and size distribution in a long-term forest dynamics. Forest Ecology and Management 1997, 92:39-44.
136. Sato T. Stocks of coarse woody debris in old-growth lucidophyllous forests in southwestern Japan. Journal of Forest Research 2010, 15:404-410.
137. Schlegel B.C., Donoso P.J. Effects of forest type and stand structure on coarse woody debris in old-growth rainforests in the Valdivian Andes, south-central Chile. Forest Ecology and Management 2008, 255:1906-1914.
138. Schliemann S.A., Bockheim J.G. Methods for studying treefall gaps: a review. Forest Ecology and Management 2011, 261:1143-1151.
139. Schnitzler A., Borlea F. Lessons from natural forests as keys for sustainable management and improvement of naturalness in managed broadleaved forests. Forest Ecology and Management 1998, 109:293-303.
140. Siitonen, J., 2001. Forest management, coarse woody debris and saproxylic organisms: Fennoscandian boreal forests as an example. Ecological Bulletins 49.
141. Silander J.A. Temperate forests. Encyclopedia of Biodiversity 2001, 607-626. Princeton University, New Jersey, USA. S.A. Levin (Ed.).
142. Sillett S.C., Van Pelt R. Trunk reiteration promotes epiphytes and water storage in an old-growth redwood forest canopy. Ecological Monographs 2007, 77:335-359.
143. Singer M.T., Lorimer C.G. Crown release as a potential old-growth restoration approach in northern hardwoods. Canadian Journal of Forest Research - Revue Canadienne De Recherche Forestiere 1997, 27:1222-1232.
144. Smale M.C., Burns B.R., Smale P.N., Whaley P.T. Dynamics of upland podocarp/broadleaved forest on Mamaku Plateau, central North Island, New Zealand. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 1997, 27:513-532.
145. Spies T.A. Ecological concepts and diversity of old-growth forests. Journal of Forestry 2004, 102:14-20.
146. Spies T.A., Franklin J.F. The structure of natural young, mature, and old-growth Douglas-fir forests in Oregon and Washington. Wildlife and Vegetation of Unmanaged Douglas-Fir Forests 1991, 285:91-109.
147. Stegen J.C., Swenson N.G., Enquist B.J., White E.P., Phillips O.L., Jorgensen P.M., Weiser M.D., Mendoza A.M., Vargas P.N. Variation in above-ground forest biomass across broad climatic gradients. Global Ecology and Biogeography 2011, 20:744-754.
148. Stephenson N.L., van Mantgem P.J., Bunn A.G., Bruner H., Harmon M.E., O'Connell K.B., Urban D.L., Franklin J.F. Causes and implications of the correlation between forest productivity and tree mortality rates. Ecological Monographs 2011, 81:527-555.
149. Svoboda M., Pouska V. Structure of a Central-European mountain spruce old-growth forest with respect to historical development. Forest Ecology and Management 2008, 255:2177-2188.
150. Taylor A.H., Halpern C.B. The structure and dynamics of Abies magnifica forests in the Southern Cascade Range, Usa. Journal of Vegetation Science 1991, 2:189-200.
151. Taylor A.H., Jang S.W., Zhao L.J., Liang C.P., Miao C.J., Huang J.Y. Regeneration patterns and tree species coexistence in old-growth Abies-Picea forests in southwestern China. Forest Ecology and Management 2006, 223:303-317.
152. Travaglini D., Paffetti D., Bianchi L., Bottacci A., Bottalico F., Giovannini G., Maltoni A., Nocentini S., Vettori C., Calamini G. Characterization, structure and genetic dating of an old-growth beech-fir forest in the northern Apennines (Italy). Plant Biosystems 2012, 146:175-188.
153. Tyrrell L.E., Crow T.R. Dynamics of dead wood in old-growth Hemlock Hardwood forests of Northern Wisconsin and Northern Michigan. Canadian Journal of Forest Research - Revue Canadienne De Recherche Forestiere 1994, 24:1672-1683.
154. Tyrrell L.E., Crow T.R. Structural characteristics of old-growth Hemlock-Hardwood forests in relation to age. Ecology 1994, 75:370-386.
155. von Oheimb G., Westphal C., Tempel H., Hardtle W. Structural pattern of a near-natural beech forest (Fagus sylvatica) (Serrahn, North-east Germany). Forest Ecology and Management 2005, 212:253-263.
156. Walcroft A.S., Brown K.J., Schuster W.S.F., Tissue D.T., Turnbull M.H., Griffin K.L., Whitehead D. Radiative transfer and carbon assimilation in relation to canopy architecture, foliage area distribution and clumping in a mature temperate rainforest canopy in New Zealand. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 2005, 135:326-339.
157. Waring R.H., Franklin J.F. Evergreen Coniferous Forests of the Pacific Northwest. Science 1979, 204:1380-1386.
158. Wells R.W., Lertzman K.P., Saunders S.C. Old-growth definitions for the forests of British Columbia, Canada. Natural Areas Journal 1998, 18:279-292.
159. Whitman A.A., Hagan J.M. An index to identify late-successional forest in temperate and boreal zones. Forest Ecology and Management 2007, 246:144-154.
160. Wijdeven, S.M.J., 2004. Stand dynamics in Fontainebleu. Dynamics in beech forest structure and composition over 17 years in La Tillaie forest reserve, Fontainebleu, France. In: Aterra-rapport 1124. Alterra, Wageningen.
161. Williams C.E., Cook R.E. Forest Seral stage and large woody debris abundance in an Allegheny high plateau forest-stream system. Natural Areas Journal 2010, 30:20-26.
162. Winter S., Moller G.C. Microhabitats in lowland beech forests as monitoring tool for nature conservation. Forest Ecology and Management 2008, 255:1251-1261.
163. Old-growth Forests: Function, Fate and Value 2009, Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg. C. Wirth, G. Gleixner, M. Heimann (Eds.).
164. Woldendorp G., Keenan R.J., Barry S., Spencer R.D. Analysis of sampling methods for coarse woody debris. Forest Ecology and Management 2004, 198:133-148.
165. Xu C.Y., Turnbull M.H., Tissue D.T., Lewis J.D., Carson R., Schuster W.S.F., Whitehead D., Walcroft A.S., Li J.B., Griffin K.L. Age-related decline of stand biomass accumulation is primarily due to mortality and not to reduction in NPP associated with individual tree physiology, tree growth or stand structure in a Quercus-dominated forest. Journal of Ecology 2012, 100:428-440.
166. Yamamoto S., Nishimura N. Canopy gap formation and replacement pattern of major tree species among developmental stages of beech (Fagus crenata) stands, Japan. Plant Ecology 1999, 140:167-176.
167. Yamamoto S., Nishimura N., Matsui K. Natural disturbance and tree species coexistence in an old-growth beech - Dwarf bamboo forest, southwestern Japan. Journal of Vegetation Science 1995, 6:875-886.
168. Zell J., Kandler G., Hanewinkel M. Predicting constant decay rates of coarse woody debris - a meta-analysis approach with a mixed model. Ecological Modelling 2009, 220:904-912.
169. Zenner E.K. Does old-growth condition imply high live-tree structural complexity?. Forest Ecology and Management 2004, 195:243-258.
170. Zhou G.Y., Liu S.G., Li Z., Zhang D.Q., Tang X.L., Zhou C.Y., Yan J.H., Mo J.M. Old-growth forests can accumulate carbon in soils. Science 2006, 314:1417.
171. Zielonka T. Quantity and decay stages of coarse woody debris in old-growth subalpine spruce forests of the western Carpathians, Poland. Canadian Journal of Forest Research - Revue Canadienne De Recherche Forestiere 2006, 36:2614-2622.