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In the case of Dominase and Ponkrum, I focus on the household as the key social unit around which livelihoods cohere because the problematisation that provided analytic purchase on these livelihoods (discussed below) related directly to this social unit, and only indirectly to other social units. This decision was supported in the course of fieldwork as residents framed livelihoods around the household. This is not to suggest that the household was the only social unit that mattered to these livelihoods
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In the case of Dominase and Ponkrum, I focus on the household as the key social unit around which livelihoods cohere because the problematisation that provided analytic purchase on these livelihoods (discussed below) related directly to this social unit, and only indirectly to other social units. This decision was supported in the course of fieldwork as residents framed livelihoods around the household. This is not to suggest that the household was the only social unit that mattered to these livelihoods.
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For example, as I will discuss below, family lineages were critical shapers of access to land, and a much wider sense of the Akan identity informed expectations of genders that shaped livelihoods roles and activities. Where in my analysis it is appropriate for the purposes of explaining observed livelihoods decisions, I will bring these other social units and their contributions to the fore
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For example, as I will discuss below, family lineages were critical shapers of access to land, and a much wider sense of the Akan identity informed expectations of genders that shaped livelihoods roles and activities. Where in my analysis it is appropriate for the purposes of explaining observed livelihoods decisions, I will bring these other social units and their contributions to the fore.
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The use of the term 'self-guidance' is not meant to be obfuscatory, but instead reflects the fact that self-interest is a very difficult thing to define, often subject to the interpretive bias of the observer. 'Self-guidance' removes implicit judgment from the observation of behaviour.
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Bhadwal, S.8
Barg, S.9
Nygaard, L.10
West, J.11
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116
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84873704902
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For a detailed description of these villages and their histories, see
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For a detailed description of these villages and their histories, see Carr, Delivering Development.
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Delivering Development
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Carr, E.R.1
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117
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In the interests of space, I will not go into a deeply detailed discussion of the vulnerability context of these villages. I explore this context in great detail in Carr, Delivering Development
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In the interests of space, I will not go into a deeply detailed discussion of the vulnerability context of these villages. I explore this context in great detail in Carr, Delivering Development.
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118
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In the interests of space, I will not go into a deeply detailed discussion of the vulnerability context of these villages. I explore this context in great detail in Carr, Delivering Development
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Ibid. 12
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119
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0001142622
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Further case studies of tropical Atlantic surface atmospheric and oceanic patterns associated with sub-Saharan drought
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PJ Lamb & RA Peppler, 'Further case studies of tropical Atlantic surface atmospheric and oceanic patterns associated with sub-Saharan drought', Journal of Climate, 5, 1992, pp 476-488.
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Lamb, P.J.1
Peppler, R.A.2
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120
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0034233028
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An analysis of recent rainfall conditions in West Africa, including the rainy seasons of the 1997 el Niño and the 1998 la Niña years
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SE Nicholson, B Some & B Kone, 'An analysis of recent rainfall conditions in West Africa, including the rainy seasons of the 1997 el Niño and the 1998 la Niña years', Journal of Climate, 13, 2000, pp 2628-2640.
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Nicholson, S.E.1
Some, B.2
Kone, B.3
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121
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0028311153
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Surface conditions associated with anomalous rainfall in the Guinea coastal region
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R Wagner & A DaSilva, 'Surface conditions associated with anomalous rainfall in the Guinea coastal region', International Journal of Climatology, 14, 1994, pp 179-199.
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Wagner, R.1
Dasilva, A.2
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122
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67650066290
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Trends in spatio-temporal variability in annual rainfall in Ghana (1951-2000)
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K Owusu & P Waylen, 'Trends in spatio-temporal variability in annual rainfall in Ghana (1951-2000)', Weather, 64(5), 2009, pp 115-120.
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(2009)
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Owusu, K.1
Waylen, P.2
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123
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47649090046
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Changing rainfall inputs in the Volta basin: Implications for water sharing in Ghana
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K Owusu, P Waylen & Y Qiu, 'Changing rainfall inputs in the Volta basin: implications for water sharing in Ghana', Geojournal, 71(4), 2008, pp 201-210.
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(2008)
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Owusu, K.1
Waylen, P.2
Qiu, Y.3
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124
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19644396910
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Placing the environment in migration: Economy and power in Ghana's Central Region
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Carr, 'Placing the environment in migration: economy and power in Ghana's Central Region', Environment and Planning A, 37(5), 2005, pp 925-946'.
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(2005)
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Carr, E.R.1
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0003424343
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Chicago, IL: Aldine
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B Glaser & A Strauss, The Discovery of Grounded Theory, Chicago, IL: Aldine, 1967, pp 61-62, 111,112.
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(1967)
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Glaser, B.1
Strauss, A.2
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55149116112
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Rethinking poverty alleviation: A "poverties" approach
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ER Carr, 'Rethinking poverty alleviation: a "poverties" approach', Development in Practice, 18(6), 2008, pp 726-734.
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Carr, E.R.1
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133
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Throughout the empirical sections of this paper, I refer to reported income figures. These figures do not represent the cash value of subsistence production or household labour, as respondents were unable to provide such information and data do not yet exist that allow for the rough equation of hectares to value for particular crops. While this limitation of the data clearly undervalues women's economic production, it accurately represents their economic position within the household and in society. No woman is compensated for subsistence production or household labour
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Throughout the empirical sections of this paper, I refer to reported income figures. These figures do not represent the cash value of subsistence production or household labour, as respondents were unable to provide such information and data do not yet exist that allow for the rough equation of hectares to value for particular crops. While this limitation of the data clearly undervalues women's economic production, it accurately represents their economic position within the household and in society. No woman is compensated for subsistence production or household labour.
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134
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Further, there is a general understanding in the literature that, for various reasons, when asked about their finances the Akan tend to underestimate income and overestimate expenses
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Further, there is a general understanding in the literature that, for various reasons, when asked about their finances the Akan tend to underestimate income and overestimate expenses.
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137
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I therefore do not consider these data very reliable except as a measure of relative earnings. All dollar values in this paper are converted from Ghanaian Cedis at the time of the interview(s) on which they are based
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I therefore do not consider these data very reliable except as a measure of relative earnings. All dollar values in this paper are converted from Ghanaian Cedis at the time of the interview(s) on which they are based.
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138
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There are almost no remittances flowing into these villages. At most, the same one or two men leave each year to take up fishing or baking in nearby countries, but this is not a common livelihoods practice
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There are almost no remittances flowing into these villages. At most, the same one or two men leave each year to take up fishing or baking in nearby countries, but this is not a common livelihoods practice.
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140
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84930557552
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Matriliny and the new intestate succession law of Ghana
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K Awusabu-Asare, 'Matriliny and the new intestate succession law of Ghana', Canadian Journal of African Studies, 24, 1990, pp 1-16.
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Canadian Journal of African Studies
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Awusabu-Asare, K.1
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141
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0023466298
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Women and the family: Cultural change in Avatime, Ghana, 1900-80
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L Brydon, 'Women and the family: cultural change in Avatime, Ghana, 1900-80', Development and Change, 18, 1987, pp 251-269.
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(1987)
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Brydon, L.1
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143
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0005636794
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Research Report 121, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute
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AR Quisumbing, K Otsuka, S Suyanto, JB Aidoo & E Payongayong, Land, Trees and Women: Evolution of Land Tenure Institutions in Western Ghana and Sumatra, Research Report 121, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute, 2001.
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(2001)
Land, Trees and Women: Evolution of Land Tenure Institutions In Western Ghana and Sumatra
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Quisumbing, A.R.1
Otsuka, K.2
Suyanto, S.3
Aidoo, J.B.4
Payongayong, E.5
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144
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0007453379
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Food Consumption and Nutrition Division Discussion Paper No 58, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute
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AR Quisumbing, E Payongayong, JB Aidoo & K Otsuka, Women's Land Rights in the Transition to Individualized Ownership: Implications for the Management of Tree Resources in Western Ghana, Food Consumption and Nutrition Division Discussion Paper No 58, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute, 1999.
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(1999)
Women's Land Rights In the Transition to Individualized Ownership: Implications For the Management of Tree Resources In Western Ghana
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Quisumbing, A.R.1
Payongayong, E.2
Aidoo, J.B.3
Otsuka, K.4
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146
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84873716949
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The issue of access to land for females heading a household is a key point that breaks down the husband/ wife duality that I have thus far presented in the livelihoods of Dominase and Ponkrum, pointing to other social relations (in this case, father/uncle-child relations) that have a bearing on the well-being of the residents
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The issue of access to land for females heading a household is a key point that breaks down the husband/ wife duality that I have thus far presented in the livelihoods of Dominase and Ponkrum, pointing to other social relations (in this case, father/uncle-child relations) that have a bearing on the well-being of the residents.
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148
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84873703939
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In subsequent field seasons, I found that men whose wives had raised enough to sell a significant surplus generally reduced the size of their wives' farms the next year
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In subsequent field seasons, I found that men whose wives had raised enough to sell a significant surplus generally reduced the size of their wives' farms the next year.
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149
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84873737727
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While the number of households operating under this strategy seems small, later fieldwork that effectively covered the entire population of these villages showed that this was probably all, or nearly all, of the households operating under this strategy in, The same is true of the number of diversified households discussed below
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While the number of households operating under this strategy seems small, later fieldwork that effectively covered the entire population of these villages showed that this was probably all, or nearly all, of the households operating under this strategy in 2004. The same is true of the number of diversified households discussed below.
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(2004)
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150
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It is important to note that in any given year roughly 40% of the population shifts out of both strategies to a situation where the husband and wife farm together, with no differentiation in their agricultural labour. In nearly all cases this shift was a one-year solution for a temporally bounded issue, such as pregnancy, and the household returned to one of the two dominant strategies in the following year
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It is important to note that in any given year roughly 40% of the population shifts out of both strategies to a situation where the husband and wife farm together, with no differentiation in their agricultural labour. In nearly all cases this shift was a one-year solution for a temporally bounded issue, such as pregnancy, and the household returned to one of the two dominant strategies in the following year.
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151
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84873709946
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Therefore, virtually all cases where a household is operating under a different strategy from those laid out here are temporary. They give us a picture of a single household dealing with a transition in a single year, but they do not speak to the long-term government of the household achieved through livelihoods in these villages
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Therefore, virtually all cases where a household is operating under a different strategy from those laid out here are temporary. They give us a picture of a single household dealing with a transition in a single year, but they do not speak to the long-term government of the household achieved through livelihoods in these villages.
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153
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I thank for pushing me to think more about this aspect of governmentality in the context of these livelihoods
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I thank Arun Agrawal for pushing me to think more about this aspect of governmentality in the context of these livelihoods.
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Agrawal, A.1
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154
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84873716242
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This was especially true with regard to school expenses, such as books and school uniforms. Under Akan kinship, the children belong to the mother's family, and therefore are the ultimate responsibility of the mother and her extended family (ie the children's maternal uncles and grandparents). This gave men something of an excuse for refusing to pay for such items
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This was especially true with regard to school expenses, such as books and school uniforms. Under Akan kinship, the children belong to the mother's family, and therefore are the ultimate responsibility of the mother and her extended family (ie the children's maternal uncles and grandparents). This gave men something of an excuse for refusing to pay for such items.
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155
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Small farmers, big impacts
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R Shah & S Radelet, eds, Washing, ton, DC: USAID
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ER Carr, 'Small farmers, big impacts', in R Shah & S Radelet (eds), Frontiers in Development, Washington, DC: USAID, 2012, pp 92-97.
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(2012)
Frontiers In Development
, pp. 92-97
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Carr, E.R.1
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156
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See, for example, usaid, accessed 28 September 2012
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See, for example, usaid, 'Evaluation: learning from experience: usaid evaluation policy', 2011, at http://transition.usaid.gov/evaluation/USAIDEvaluationPolicy.pdf, accessed 28 September 2012.
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(2011)
Evaluation: Learning From Experience: Usaid Evaluation Policy
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