Neurodevelopment and inflammatory patterns in schizophrenia in relation to pathophysiology

Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry

Volumn 42, Issue , 2013, Pages 63-70

  Altamura, A Carlo ^a   Pozzoli, Sara ^a   Fiorentini, Alessio ^a   Dell'Osso, Bernardo ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MILAN   (Italy)

Author keywords

Cytokines; Inflammation; Neurodevelopmental hypothesis; Schizophrenia

Indexed keywords

TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR;

ARTICLE; BRAIN DEVELOPMENT; CYTOKINE PRODUCTION; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; EPIGENETICS; GENOTYPE ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION; HUMAN; IMMUNE SYSTEM; INFLAMMATION; LONGITUDINAL STUDY; MOLECULAR PATHOLOGY; NERVE CELL DIFFERENTIATION; NERVE DEGENERATION; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; PROTEIN INTERACTION; SCHIZOPHRENIA;

ANIMALS; BRAIN; CYTOKINES; HUMANS; INFLAMMATION; SCHIZOPHRENIA;

EID: 84873568650     PISSN: 02785846     EISSN: 18784216     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2012.08.015     Document Type: Article

References (138)

1. Akhondzadeh S., Tatabase M., Amini H., Ahmadi Abhari S.A., Abbasi S.H., Behnam B., et al. Celecoxib as adjunctive therapy in schizophrenia: a double-blind, randomized and placebo-controlled trial. Schizophr Res 2006, 84:180-182.
2. Akiyama K. Serum levels of soluble IL-2 receptor alpha, IL-6 and IL-1 receptor antagonist in schizophrenia before and during neuroleptic administration. Schizophr Res 1999, 37:97-106.
3. Altamura A.C. A multidimensional (pharmacokinetic and clinical-biological) approach to neuroleptic response in schizophrenia. With particular reference to drug resistance. Schizophr Res 1993, 8(3):187-198.
4. Altamura A.C., Boin F., Maes M. HPA axis and cytokines dysregulation in schizophrenia: potential implications for the antipsychotics treatment. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 1999, 10:1-4.
5. Altamura A.C., Bassetti R., Bocchio L., Santini A., Mundo E. Season of birth and inflammatory response system in schizophrenia. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2003, 27(5):879-880.
6. Barkus E., Stirling J., Hopkins R., Lewis S. The presence of neurological soft signs along the psychosis proneness continuum. Schizophr Bull 2006, 32:573-577.
7. Baud O., Emilie D., Pelletier E., Lacaze-Masmonteil T., Zupan V., Fernandez H., et al. Amniotic fluid concentrations of interleukin-1beta, interleukin-6, and TNF-alpha in chorioaminionitis before 32weeks of gestation: histological association and neonatal out come. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1999, 106:72-77.
8. Bauer S., Kerr B.J., Patterson P.H. The neuropoietic cytokine family in development, plasticity, disease and injury. Nat Rev Neurosci 2007, 8:221-232.
9. Boin F., Zanardini R., Pioli R., Altamura C.A., Maes M., Gennarelli M. Association between -G308A tumor necrosis factor alpha gene polymorphism and schizophrenia. Mol Psychiatry 2001, 6(1):79-82.
10. Boog G. Obstetrical complications and subsequent schizophrenia in adolescent and young adult offsprings: is there a relationship?. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2004, 114:130-136.
11. Braun A.S., Derkits E.J. Prenatal infection and schizophrenia: a review of epidemiologic and translational studies. Am J Psychiatry 2010, 167:261-280.
12. Bresee C., Rapaport M.H. Persistently increased serum soluble interleukin-2 receptors in continuously ill patients with schizophrenia. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2009, 12(6):861-865.
13. Brown A.S. Prenatal infection as a risk factor for schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 2006, 32:200-202.
14. Brown A.S., Cohen P., Greenwald S., Susser E. Nonaffective psychosis after prenatal exposure to rubella. Am J Psychiatry 2000, 157:438-443.
15. Brown A.S., Schaefer C.A., Wyatt R.J., Goetz R., Begg M.D., Gorman J.M., et al. Maternal exposure to respiratory infections and adult schizophrenia spectrum disorders: a prospective birth cohort study. Schizophr Bull 2000, 26:287-295.
16. Brown A.S., Begg M.D., Gravenstein S., Schaefer C.A., Wyatt R.J., Bresnahan M., et al. Serologic evidence of prenatal influenza in the etiology of schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2004, 61:774-780.
17. Buckley P. The clinical stigmata of aberrant neurodevelopment in schizophrenia. J Nerv Ment Dis 1998, 186(2):79-86.
18. Buka S.L., Tsuang M.T., Torrey E.F., Klebanoff M.A., Bernstein D., Yolken R.H. Maternal infections and subsequent psychosis among offspring. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2001, 58:1032-1037.
19. Cannon M., Jones P.B., Murray R.M. Obstetric complications and schizophrenia: historical and meta-analytic review. Am J Psychiatry 2002, 159:1080-1092.
20. Cannon T.D., van Erp T.G., Rosso I.M., Marchetti M., Favaretto G., Miotto P. Fetal hypoxia and structural brain abnormalities in schizophrenic patients, their siblings, and controls. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2002, 59:35-41.
21. Cardno A.G., Marshall E.J., Coid B., Macdonald A.M., Ribchester T.R., Davies N.J., et al. Heritability estimates for psychotic disorders: the Maudsley twin psychosis series. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1999, 56:162-168.
22. Chklovskii D.B. Exact solution for the optimal neuronal layout problem. Neural Comput 2004, 16(10):2067-2078.
23. Coe C.L., Lubach G.R. Prenatal origins of individual variation in behaviour and immunity. Neurosci Behav Rev 2005, 29:39-49.
24. Csernansky J.G. Neurodegeneration in schizophrenia: evidence from in vivo neuroimaging studies. Sci World J 2007, 7:135-143.
25. Dammann O., Leviton A. Maternal intrauterine infection, cytokines and brain damage in the preterm newborn. Pediatr Res 1997, 42:1-8.
26. Davis K.L., Stewart D.G., Friedman J.I., Buchsbaum M., Harvey P.D., Hof P.R., et al. White matter changes in schizophrenia: evidence for myelin-related dysfunction. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003, 60:443-456.
27. Deinzer R., Granrath N., Stuhl H., Twork L., Idel H., Waschul B., et al. Acute stress effects on local Il-1beta responses to pathogens in a human in vivo model. Brain Behav Immun 2004, 18(5):458-467.
28. Deverman B.E., Patterson P. Cytokines and CNS development. Neuron 2009, 64:61-77.
29. Elovitz M.A., Mrinalini C., Sammel M.D. Elucidating the early signal transduction pathways leading to fetal brain injury in preterm birth. Pediatr Res 2006, 59:50-55.
30. Fidel P.L., Romero R., Wolf N., Cutright J., Ramirez M., Araneda H., et al. Systemic and local cytokine profiles in endotoxin-induced preterm parturition in mice. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994, 170:1467-1475.
31. Fish B. Neurobiologic antecedents of schizophrenia in children. Evidence for an inherited, congenital neurointegrative defect. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1977, 34(11):1297-1313.
32. Fish B., Marcus J., Hans S., Auerbach J.G., Perdue S. Infants at risk for schizophrenia: sequelae of a genetic neurointegrative defect. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1992, 49:221-235.
33. Fleshner M., Goehler L.E., Hermann J., Relton J.K., Maier S.F., Watkins L.R. Interleukin-1 beta induced corticosterone elevation and hypothalamic NE depletion is vagally mediated. Brain Res Bull 1995, 37(6):605-610.
34. Fatemi S.H., Folsom T.D. The Neurodevelopmental Hypothesis of Schizophrenia, Revisited. Schizophr Bull 2009, 35(3):528-554.
35. Fortunado S.J., Menon R.P., Swan K.F., Menon R. Inflammatory cytokines (interleukins 1.6.8 and tumor necrosis factor-a) release from cultured fetal membranes in response to endotoxic lipopolysaccharide mirrors amniotic fluid. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996, 174:1855-1862.
36. Ganguli R., Brar J.S., Rabin B.S. Immune abnormalities in schizophrenia. Evidence for the autoimmune hypothesis. Harv Rev Psychiatry 1994, 2(2):70-83.
37. Ganguli R., Yang Z., Shurin G., Chengappa K.N., Brar J.S., Gubbi A.V., et al. Serum interleukin-6 concentration in schizophrenia: elevation associated with duration of illness. Psychiatry Res 1994, 51:1-10.
38. Garver D.L., Tamas R.L., Holcomb J.A. Elevated interleukin-6 in the cerebrospinal fluid of a previously delineated schizophrenia subtype. Neuropsychopharmacology 2003, 28:1515-1520.
39. Gaulden J., Reiter J.F. Nuer-ons and neur-offs: regulators of neural induction in vertebrate embryos and embryonic cells. Hum Mol Genet 2008, 17:R60-R66.
40. Geddes J.R., Lawrie S.M. Obstetric complications and schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry 1995, 167:786-793.
41. Geddes J.R., Verdoux H., Takei N., Lawrie S.M., Bovet P., Eagles J.M., et al. Schizophrenia and complications of pregnancy and labor: an individual patient data meta-analysis. Schizophr Bull 1999, 25:413-423.
42. Gilmore J.H., Jarskog L.F. Exposure to infection and brain development: cytokines in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 1997, 24:365-367.
43. Gilmore J.H., van Tol J., Kliewer M.A., Silva S.G., Cohen S.B., Hertzberg B.S., et al. Mild ventriculomegaly detected in utero with ultrasound: clinical associations and implications for schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 1998, 33:133-140.
44. Goebel M.U., Mills P.J., Irwin M.R., Ziegler M.G. Interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha production after acute psychological stress, exercise, and infused isoproterenol: differential effects and pathways. Psychosom Med 2000, 62(4):591-598.
45. Goehler L.E., Busch C.R., Tartaglia N., et al. Blockade of cytokine induced conditioned taste aversion by subdiaphragmatic vagotomy: further evidence for vagal mediation of immune-brain communication. Neurosci Lett 1995, 185(3):163-166.
46. Gourion D., Gourevitch R., Leprovost J.B., Olie H.L.J., Krebs M.O. Neurodevelopmental hypothesis in schizophrenia. Encéphale 2004, 30:109-118.
47. Gur R.E., Cowell P., Turetsky B.I., et al. A follow-up magnetic resonance imaging study of schizophrenia. Relationship of neuroanatomical changes to clinical and neurobehavioral measures. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1998, 55(2):145-152.
48. Hansen K., Sickelmann F., Pietrowsky R., Fehm H.L., Born J. Systemic immune changes following meal intake in humans. Am J Physiol 1997, 273(2 Pt 2):R548-R553.
49. Hare E.H., Price J.S., Slater E. Schizophrenia and season of birth. Br J Psychiatry 1972, 120:125-126.
50. Hillier S.L., Witkin S.S., Krohn M.A., Watts D.H., Kiviat N.B., Eschenbach D.A. The relationship of amniotic fluid cytokines and preterm delivery, amniotic fluid infection, histologic chorioamnionitis, and chorioamnion infection. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993, 81:941-948.
51. Jablensky A. Epidemiology of schizophrenia: the global burden of disease and disability. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2000, 250(6):274-285.
52. Jonakait G.M. The effects of maternal inflammation on neuronal development: possible mechanisms. Int J Dev Neurosci 2007, 25:415-425.
53. Jones P.B., Buckley P.F. Schizophrenia 2006, Elsevier.
54. Jones P., Cannon M. The new epidemiology of schizophrenia. Psychiatr Clin North Am 1998, 21(1):1-25.
55. Kaminska T., Wyoska A., Marmurowska-Michalowska H., Dubas-Slemp H., Kandefer-Szersen M. Investigation of serum cytokines levels and cytokine production in whole blood cultures of paranoid schizophrenic patients. Arch Immunol Ther Exp (Warsz) 2001, 29:439-445.
56. Karlsson H., Bachmann S., Schroder J., McArthur J., Torrey E.F., Yolken R.H. Retroviral RNA identified in the cerebrospinal fluids and brains of individuals with schizophrenia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2001, 98:4634-4639.
57. Keshavan M.S. Development, disease and degeneration in schizophrenia: a unitary pathophysiological model. J Psychiatr Res 1999, 33:513-521.
58. Keshavan M.S., Hogarty G.E. Brain maturational processes and delayed onset in schizophrenia. Dev Psychopathol 1999, 11:525-543.
59. Keshavan M.S., Murray R.M. Neurodevelopment and adult psychopathology 1997, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England.
60. Kim Y.K., Kim L., Lee M.S. Relationships between interleukins, neurotransmitters and psychopathology in drug-free male schizophrenics. Schizophr Res 2000, 44:165-175.
61. Laan W., Grobbee D.E., Selte J.P., Heijen C.J., Kahn R.S., Burger H. Adjuvant aspirin therapy reduces symptoms of schizophrenia spectrum disorders: results from a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Psychiatry 2010, 71:520-527.
62. Lee R.H., Mills E.A., Schwartz N., Bell M.R., Deeg K.E., Ruthazer E.S., et al. Neurodevelopmental effects of chronic exposure to elevated levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in a developing visual system. Neural Dev 2010, 5:2.
63. Leonard B.E., Song C. Stress, depression, and the role of cytokines. Adv Exp Med Biol 1999, 461:251-265.
64. Lewis D.A. Retroviruses and the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2001, 94:4293-4294.
65. Lewis D.A., Levitt P. Schizophrenia as a disorder of neurodevelopment. Annu Rev Neurosci 2002, 25:409-432.
66. Lewis C.M., Levinson D.F., Wise L.H., DeLisi L.E., Straub R.E., Hovatta I., et al. Genome scan meta-analysis of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, part II: schizophrenia. Am J Hum Genet 2003, 73:34-48.
67. Licinio J., Wong M.L. Pathways and mechanisms for cytokine signaling of the central nervous system. J Clin Invest 1997, 100(12):2941-2947.
68. Licinio J., Kling M.A., Hauser P. Cytokines and brain function: relevance to interferon-alpha-induced mood and cognitive changes. Semin Oncol 1998, 25(1 Suppl. 1):30-38. [Review].
69. Lieberman J.A. Is schizophrenia a neurodegenerative disorder? A clinical and neurobiological perspective. Biol Psychiatry 1999, 46(6):729-739.
70. Lin A., Kenis G., Bignotti S., Tura G.J., Delong R., Bosmans E., et al. The inflammatory response system in treatment-resistant schizophrenia: increased serum interleukin-6. Schizophr Res 1998, 32(1):9-15.
71. Liu H., Kang Y., Liang J., Li C., Xiu M., Chen D., et al. Lower serum interleukin-2 levels in schizophrenic patients with tardive dyskinesia. Psychiatry Res 2012, 198(2):329-331. [Epub 2012 Mar 13]. 10.1016/j.psychres.2012.01.002.
72. Lloyd T., Dazzan P., Dean K., Park S.B., Fearon P., Doody G.A., et al. Minor physical anomalies in patients with first-episode psychosis: their frequency and diagnostic specificity. Psychol Med 2008, 38:71-77.
73. Machon R.A., Mednick S.A., Schulsinger F. The interaction of seasonality, place of birth, genetic risk and subsequent schizophrenia in a high risk sample. Br J Psychiatry 1983, 143:383-388.
74. Maes M., Meltzer H.Y., Bosmans E. Immune-inflammatory markers in schizophrenia: comparison to normal controls and effects of clozapine. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1994, 89(5):346-351.
75. Maes M., Song C., Lin A., et al. The effects of psychological stress on humans: increased production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and a Th1-like response in stress-induced anxiety. Cytokine 1998, 10(4):313-318.
76. Maes M., Christophe A., Delanghe J., Altamura C., Neels H., Meltzer H.Y. Lowered omega3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in serum phospholipids and cholesteryl esters of depressed patients. Psychiatry Res 1999, 85(3):275-291.
77. Maes M., Christophe A., Bosmans E., Lin A., Neels H. In humans, serum polyunsaturated fatty acid levels predict the response of proinflammatory cytokines to psychologic stress. Biol Psychiatry 2000, 47(10):910-912. [May 15].
78. Maes M., Bocchio Chiavetto L., Bignotti S., Battisa Tura G.J., Pioli R., Boin F., et al. Increased serum interleukin-8 and interleukin-10 in schizophrenic patients resistant to treatment with neuroleptics and the stimulatory effects of clozapine on serum leukemia inhibitory factor receptor. Schizophr Res 2002, 54(3):281-291.
79. Mahendran R., Mahendran R., Chan Y.H. Interleukin-2 levels in chronic schizophrenia patients. Ann Acad Med Singapore 2004, 33:320-323.
80. Maier S.F., Goehler L.E., Fleshner M., Watkins L.R. The role of the vagus nerve in cytokine-to-brain communication. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1998, 840:289-300. [May 1].
81. Marcus J., Hans S.L., Auerbach J.G., Auerbach A.G. Children at risk for schizophrenia: the Jerusalem Infant Development Study. II. Neurobehavioral deficits at school age. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1993, 50(10):797-809.
82. Margioris A.N. Fatty acids and postprandial inflammation. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2009, 12(2):129-137. [Mar].
83. Mednick S.A., Machon R.A., Huttunen M.O., Bonett D. Adult schizophrenia following prenatal exposure to an influenza epidemic. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988, 45:189-192.
84. Meltzer H.Y., Fatemi S.H. Schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders. Current diagnosis and treatment in psychiatry 2000, 260-277. Appleton and Lange, Norwalk, Conn. M.H. Ebert, P.T. Loosen, B. Nurcombe (Eds.).
85. Merlot E., Couret D., Otten W. Prenatal stress, fetal imprinting and immunity. Brain Behav Immun 2008, 22:42-51.
86. Miller B.J., Buckley P., Seabolt W., Mellor A., Kirkpatrick B. Meta-analysis of cytokine alterations in schizophrenia: clinical status and antipsychotic effects. Biol Psychiatry 2011, 70:663-671.
87. Monji A., Kato T., Kanba S. Cytokines and schizophrenia: microglia hypothesis of schizophrenia. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2009, 63:257-265.
88. Muller N., Schwarz M. Schizophrenia as an inflammation-mediated dysbalance of glutamatergic neurotransmission. Neurotox Res 2006, 10(2):131-148.
89. Muller N., Riedel M., Ackenheil M., Schwarz M.J. The role of immune function in schizophrenia: an overview. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1999, 249(4):62-68.
90. Muller N., Riedel M., Scheppach C., Brandstatter B., Sokullu S., Krampe K., et al. Beneficial antipsychotic effects of celecoxib add-on therapy compared to risperidone alone in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 2002, 159:1029-1034.
91. Muller N., Krause D., Dehning S., Musil R., Schennach-Wolff R., Obermeier M., et al. Celecoxib treatment in an early stage of schizophrenia: results of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of celecoxib augmentation of amisulpiride treatment. Schizophr Res 2010, 121:118-124.
92. Mundo E., Altamura A.C., Vismara S., Zanardini R., Bignotti S., Randazzo R., et al. MCP-1 gene (SCYA2) and schizophrenia: a case-control association study. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2005, 132B:1-4.
93. Murray R.M., Lewis S.W. Is schizophrenia a neurodevelopmental disorder?. Br Med J 1987, 295:681-682.
94. Nakai Y., Itoh M., Mizuguchi M., Ozawa H., Okazaki E., Kobayashi Y., et al. Apoptosis and microglial activation in influenza encephalopathy. Acta Neuropathol 2003, 105:233-239.
95. Naudin J., Mege J.L., Azorin J.M., Dassa D. Elevated circulating levels of IL-6 in schizophrenia: an overview. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1996, 20(3):269-273.
96. Naudin J., Capo C., Giusano B., Mege J.L., Azorin J.M. A differential role for interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha in schizophrenia?. Schizophr Res 1997, 26(2-3):227-233.
97. Niemi L.T., Suvisaari J.M., Tuulio-Henriksson A., Lonnqvist J.K. Childhood developmental abnormalities in schizophrenia: evidence from high-risk studies. Schizophr Res 2003, 60:239-258.
98. Nunes S.O., Matsuo T., Kaminami M.S., Watanabe M.A., Reiche E.M., Itano E.N. An autoimmune or an inflammatory process in patients with schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, and their biological relatives. Schizophr Res 2006, 84:180-182.
99. O'Callaghan E., Sham P.C., Takei N., Murray G., Glover G., Hare E.H., et al. The relationship of schizophrenic births to 16 infectious diseases. Br J Psychiatry 1994, 165:353-356.
100. Patterson P.H. Immune involvement in schizophrenia and autism. Etiology, pathology and animal models. Behav Brain Res 2009, 204:313-321.
101. Pinto L., Gotz M. Radial glial cell heterogeneity-the source of diverse progeny in the CNS. Prog Neurobiol 2007, 7:797-805.
102. Potvin S., Stip E., Sephery A.A., Gendron A., Ramatoulaye B., Kouassi E. Inflammatory cytokines alterations in schizophrenia: a systematic quantitative review. Biol Psychiatry 2008, 63:801-808.
103. Preti A., Cardascia L., Zen T., Marchetti M., Favaretto G., Miotto P.A. Risk for obstetric complications and schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res 2000, 96:127-139.
104. Rapoport J.L., Addington A.M., Frangouand S., Psych M.R.C. The neurodevelopmental model of schizophrenia: update 2005. Mol Psychiatry 2005, 10:434-449.
105. Rund B.R. Is schizophrenia a neurodegenerative disorder?. Nord J Psychiatry 2009, 63(3):196-201.
106. Saji F., Samejima Y., Kamiura S., Sawai K., Shimoya K., Kimura T. Cytokine production in chorioamnionitis. J Reprod Immunol 2000, 47:185-196.
107. Sasayama D., Wakabayashi C., Hori H., Teraishi T., Hattori K., Ota M., et al. Association of plasma IL-6 and soluble IL-6 receptor levels with the Asp358Ala polymorphism of the IL-6 receptor gene in schizophrenic patients. J Psychiatr Res 2011, 45:1439-1444.
108. Schaefer M., Schmidt F., Neumer R., Scholler G., Schwarz M. Interpheron-alpha, cytokines and possible implication for mood disorder. Bipolar Disord 2002, 4:111-113.
109. Schmidt-Kastner R., Van Os J., Steinbusch H.M.W., et al. Gene regulation by hypoxia and the neurodevelopmental origin of schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2006, 84:253-271.
110. Schwarz M.J., Muller N., Riedel M., Ackenheil M. The Th2-hypothesis of schizophrenia: a strategy to identify a subgroup of schizophrenia caused by immune mechanisms. Med Hypotheses 2001, 56:483-486.
111. Selemon L.D., Goldman-Rakic P.S. The reduced neutrophil hypothesis: a circuit based model of schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 1999, 45:17-25.
112. Shen Q., Li Z.Q., Sun Y., Wang T., Wan C.L., Li X.W., et al. The role of pro-inflammatory factors in mediating the effects on the fetus of prenatal undernutrition: implications for schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2008, 99:48-55.
113. Singh S.M., McDonald P., Murphy B., O'Reilly R. Incidental neurodevelopmental episodes in the etiology of schizophrenia: an expanded model involving epigenetics and development. Clin Genet 2004, 65:435-440.
114. Smith R.S., Maes M. The macrophage-T-lymphocyte theory of schizophrenia: additional evidence. Med Hypotheses 1995, 45:135-141.
115. Sullivan P.F., Eaves L.J., Kendler K.S., Neale M.C. Genetic case-control association studies in neuropsychiatry. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2001, 58:1015-1024.
116. Sullivan P.F., Owen M.J., O'Donovan M.C., Freedman M.D. Genetics. The American psychiatric publishing textbook of schizophrenia 2006, 39-54. American Psychiatric Publishing Inc., Washington, DC. J.A. Lieberman, T.S. Stroup, D.O. Perkins (Eds.).
117. Susser E.S., Brown A.S., Gorman J.M. Prenatal exposures in schizophrenia 1999, American Psychiatric Press, Washington, DC.
118. Suvisaari J., Haukka J., Tanskanen A., Hovi T., Lonnqvist J. Association between prenatal exposure to poliovirus infection and adult schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1999, 156:1100-1102.
119. Thompson P.M., Vidal C., Giedd J.N., Gochman P., Blumenthal J., Nicolson R., et al. Mapping adolescent brain change reveals dynamic wave of accelerated gray matter loss in very early-onset schizophrenia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2001, 98(20):11650-11655.
120. Torrey E.F., Rawlings R., Waldman I.N. Schizophrenic births and viral diseases in two states. Schizophr Res 1988, 1:73-77.
121. Urkabo A., Jarskog L.F., Lieberman J.A., Gilmore J.H. Prenatal exposure to maternal infection alters cytokine expression in the placenta, amniotic fluid, and fetal brain. Schizophr Res 2001, 47:27-36.
122. Van Kammen D.P., Mc Allister-Sistilli C.G., Kelley M.E., Gurkils J.A., Yao J.K. Elevated interleukin-6 in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res 1998, 87(2-3):129-136.
123. Waddington J.L. Neurodynamics of abnormalities in cerebral metabolism and structure in schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 1993, 19:55-69.
124. Waddington J.L., Buckley P.F. The neurodevelopmental basis of schizophrenia 1996, Landes, Austin, TX.
125. Walker E., Lewine R.J. Prediction of adult-onset schizophrenia from childhood home movies of the patients. Am J Psychiatry 1990, 147(8):1052-1056.
126. Walker E.F., Savoie T., Davis D. Neuromotor precursors of schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 1994, 20:441-451.
127. Wan W., Wetmore L., Sorensen C.M., Greenberg A.H., Nance D.M. Neural and biochemical mediators of endotoxin and stress-induced c-fos expression in the rat brain. Brain Res Bull 1994, 34(1):7-14.
128. Watkins L.R., Goehler L.E., Relton J.K., Tartaglia N., Silbert L., Martin D., et al. Blockade of interleukin-1 induced hyperthermia by subdiaphragmatic vagotomy: evidence for vagal mediation of immune-brain communication. Neurosci Lett 1995, 183(1-2):27-31.
129. Watkins L.R., Maier S.F., Goehler L.E. Cytokine-to-brain communication: a review & analysis of alternative mechanisms. Life Sci 1995, 57(11):1011-1026.
130. Watkins L.R., Nguyen K.T., Lee J.E., Maier S.F. Dynamic regulation of proinflammatory cytokines. Adv Exp Med Biol 1999, 461:153-178.
131. Watson C.G., Kucala T., Tilleskjor C., Jacobs L. Schizophrenic birth seasonality in relation to the incidence of infectious diseases and temperature extremes. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1984, 41:85-90.
132. Weinberger D.R. Implications of normal brain development for the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1987, 44:660-669.
133. Weinberger D.R. Schizophrenia: from neuropathology to neurodevelopment. Lancet 1995, 346:552-557.
134. Weizman R., Bessler H. Cytokines: stress and immunity: an overview. Cytokines, stress and immunity 1999, 1-15. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla. N.P. Plotkinoff, R.E. Faith, A.I. Murgo, R.A. Good (Eds.).
135. Werry J.S. Childhood schizophrenia. Psychoses and pervasive developmental disorders in childhood and adolescence 1996, 1-41. American Psychiatric Press, Inc., Washington DC. F.R. Volkmar (Ed.).
136. Woods B.T. Is schizophrenia a progressive neurodevelopmental disorder? Toward a unitary pathogenetic mechanism. Am J Psychiatry 1998, 155(12):1661-1670. [Dec].
137. Wright P., Gill M., Murray R.M. Schizophrenia: genetics and the maternal immune response to viral infection. Am J Med Genet 1993, 48(1):40-46.
138. Yoon B.H., Romero R., Moon J., Chaiworapongsa T., Espinoza J., Kim Y.M., et al. Differences in the fetal interleukin-6 response to microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity between term and preterm gestation. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2003, 13:32-38.