An introduction to the carbon farming initiative: Key principles and concepts

Environmental and Planning Law Journal

Volumn 29, Issue 6, 2012, Pages 439-461

  Macintosh, Andrew ^a   Waugh, Lauren ^a  

^a AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ABATEMENT COST; CARBON SEQUESTRATION; CLIMATE CHANGE; GREENHOUSE GAS; LAND MANAGEMENT; MANAGEMENT PRACTICE; MITIGATION;

AUSTRALIA;

EID: 84872738589     PISSN: 0813300X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (243)

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23. The conversion of emissions into CO2-e using GWPs is not without controversy. Most of this stems from the fact that the gases do not have the same atmospheric lifetime or, in the case of CO2, do not have a single atmospheric lifetime. Due to this, the choice of time interval alters the GWP and has ramifications for the impacts and cost-effectiveness of different abatement strategies.
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27. Borrowing is subject to a 5% cap and liable entities are only allowed to surrender carbon units with a vintage one year after the relevant financial year: Clean Energy Act 2011 (Cth), ss 122, 133.
28. Clean Energy Act 2011 (Cth), s 30.
29. The coverage of PFC emissions is confined to those from the aluminum sector: s 30(12).
30. Explanatory Memorandum, n 3, p 33.
31. Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, open for signature 16 March 1998, 37 ILM 22 (entered into force 16 February 2005) (Kyoto Protocol).
32. Clean Energy (Fuel Tax Legislation Amendment) Act 2011 (Cth), Clean Energy (Excise Tariff Legislation Amendment) Act 2011 (Cth) and Clean Energy (Customs Tariff Amendment) Act 2011 (Cth) amend the Fuel Tax Act 2006 (Cth), Excise Tariff Act 1921 (Cth) and Customs Tariff Act 1995 (Cth).
33. The fuel tax scheme works by imposing fuel tax under the Excise Tariff Act (for domestically manufactured fuels) and Customs Tariff Act (for imported fuels). Fuel tax credits are then granted under the Fuel Tax Act, which remove or reduce the incidence of fuel tax from business inputs so that fuel tax falls primarily on consumers and business use of light commercial vehicles. The equivalent carbon pricing arrangements reduce the fuel tax credits granted to business by an amount equal to the carbon price, thereby effectively increasing the price of fuel.
34. The Clean Energy (Consequential Amendments) Act 2011 (Cth), Ozone Protection and Synthetic Greenhouse Gas (Manufacture Levy) Amendment Act 2011 (Cth) and Ozone Protection and Synthetic Greenhouse Gas (Import Levy) Amendment Act 2011 (Cth) amend the Ozone Protection and Synthetic Greenhouse Gas Management Act 1989 (Cth), Ozone Protection and Synthetic Greenhouse Gas (Manufacture Levy) Act 1995 (Cth) and Ozone Protection and Synthetic Greenhouse Gas (Import Levy) Act 1995 (Cth).
35. There are also federal renewable energy policy instruments that contribute to the mitigation effort, including the Large-Scale Renewable Energy Target, Small-Scale Renewable Energy Scheme and Clean Energy Finance Corporation. These are not discussed because they are primarily directed towards industry assistance/technological development rather than mitigation.
36. Kyoto Protocol, n 12, Arts 3-4
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41. The alternative "consumption approach", whereby countries would be responsible for emissions embodied in the goods and services consumed in their territory, was rejected in the 1990s on the grounds it was unworkable.
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45. Eggleston et al, n 17.
46. Australian Government, National Greenhouse Gas Inventory: Accounting for the Kyoto Target - Dec 2010 (DCCEE, 2011).
47. 2 emissions and removals are reported in the LULUCF sector or not reported at all, depending on LULUCF coverage.
48. Australian Government, n 19
49. Australian Government, n 20
50. Egglestonet al, n 17.
51. Kyoto Protocol, n 12, Arts 3-4
52. Marrakesh Accords, Decision 16/CMP.1, FCCC/KP/CMP/2005/8/Add.3 (2006)
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54. Kyoto Protocol, n 12, Arts 34
55. Marrakesh Accords, n 22
56. Penman J et al, Good Practice Guidance for Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry (2003) at 4.30.
57. Kyoto Protocol, n 12, Art 3(7).
58. Kyoto Protocol, n 12, Arts 3(3)3(4)
59. Marrakesh Accords, n 22.
60. Joint Implementation includes the same LULUCF activities as are reported by Annex B countries. The CDM's coverage of LULUCF in the first commitment period is more limited, being restricted to afforestation and reforestation projects. This has been a source of controversy because it excludes deforestation and forest degradation, even though deforestation alone accounted for 15% of global carbon emissions over the period 1990-2010.
61. 2 Emissions After the 2008-2009 Global Financial Crisis" (2012) 2 Nature Climate Change 2.
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63. Australian Government, Australia's Emissions Projections 2010 (DCCEE, 2011)
64. Australian Government, n 20.
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66. Australian Government, n 19.
67. Saddler H and King H, Agriculture and Emissions Trading: The Impossible Dream? (2008)
68. Macintosh, n 27
69. Australian Government, n 19.
70. Australian Government, Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme: Australia's Low Pollution Future (2008) pp 6-46.
71. The grant programs include the Biodiversity Fund ($946 million over six years), the Carbon Farming Futures Program ($429 million over six years), Australia's Farming Future Program ($130 million over four years), and the Regional Natural Resource Management Planning for Climate Change Fund ($44 million over five years): Australian Government, Securing a Clean Energy Future (2011).
72. Individual projects can have both Kyoto and non-Kyoto components: Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), s 55.
73. Clean Energy Act 2011 (Cth), s 5.
74. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), ss 154, 157.
75. See also Australian National Registry of Emissions Units Act 2011 (Cth), ss 38, 41.
76. Australian Treasury, Strong Growth, Low Pollution (2011) p 60.
77. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), s 55.
78. Bayon R, Hawn A and Hamilton K, Voluntary Carbon Markets (2007)
79. Hamilton K et al, State of the Voluntary Carbon Market 2007 (2007)
80. Hamilton K et al, State of the Voluntary Carbon Markets 2008 (2007)
81. Hamilton K et al, State of the Voluntary Carbon Markets 2009 (2009)
82. Hamilton K et al, State of the Voluntary Carbon Markets 2010 (2010)
83. Peters-Stanley M et al, State of the Voluntary Carbon Markets 2011 (2011).
84. Australian Government, n 32.
85. UNFCCC, Establishment of an Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action, CP.17 (2011).
86. UNFCCC, Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry, CMP.7 (2011).
87. Evidence to Senate Environment and Communications Legislation Committee, Parliament of Australia, Canberra, 13 February 2012, p 73 (Clare Walsh).
88. UNFCCC, Outcome of the Work of the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action Under the Convention, CP.17 (2011).
89. Combet G, Breakthrough at Durban Climate Change Conference (media release, 11 December 2011).
90. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), s 112.
91. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), s 106.
92. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), s 106(4).
93. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), s 64.
94. The requirement that project proponents hold the applicable carbon sequestration right only applies to sequestration projects.
95. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), s 27.
96. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), s 76.
97. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), s 76(5).
98. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), s 12.
99. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), s 15.
100. For "native forest protection projects", the unit entitlement is equal to the net sequestration number minus the risk of reversal buffer: Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), ss 16, 17.
101. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), s 18.
102. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), s 11.
103. Rentz H, "Joint Implementation and the Question of Additionality" (1998) 4 Energy Policy 275
104. Baumert K, "The Clean Development Mechanism: Understanding Additionality" in Goldemberg J and Reid W (eds), Promoting Development while Limiting Greenhouse Gas Emissions (1999)
105. Chomitz K, Evaluating Carbon Offsets from Forestry and Energy Projects: How Do They Compare? (2000)
106. Watson R et al (eds), Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry (IPCC, 2000)
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108. Schneider L, "Assessing the Additionality of CDM Projects" (2009) 9 Climate Policy 242
109. Paulsson E, "A Review of the CDM Literature: From Fine-tuning to Critical Scrutiny" (2009) 9 International Environmental Agreements 63.
110. Chomitz, n 58
111. Watson et al, n 58
112. Sohngen B and Brown S, "Measuring Leakage from Carbon Projects in Open Economies" (2004) 34(4) Canadian Journal of Forestry Research 829
113. Nabuurs G et al, "Forestry" in Metz B et al (eds), Climate Change 2007: Mitigation of Climate Change (2008)
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115. See also Marrakesh Accords, n 22.
116. Fry, n 59
117. Macintosh, n 27.
118. Chomitz K, The Permanence and Duration Issue in Carbon Offsets (World Bank, 1998)
119. Neeff T and Ascui F, "Lessons from Carbon Markets for Designing an Effective REDD Architecture" (2009) 9 Climate Policy 306
120. Chomitz, n 58
121. Fry, n 59.
122. The next accounting period after the end of the Kyoto Protocol's first commitment period could be 2013-2017.
123. Technically, net LULUCF credits are added to the national target, as uncovered sector emissions, consistent with Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme White Paper (2008) pp 10-17
124. Explanatory Memorandum, Clean Energy Bill 2011 (Cth) p 112.
125. Readers should note that in all scenarios in Fig 4, total national emissions remain unchanged, reflecting the fact that invalid Kyoto ACCUs do not affect the environmental outcome - this is determined by the national emissions target.
126. Clean Energy Act 2011 (Cth), s 125(7).
127. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), s 41.
128. Other mechanisms include the requirements in the offsets integrity standards that estimates, projections and assumptions in the methodologies should be conservative and, in relation to sequestration offsets projects, methods should provide for adjustments to take account of interannual variation: s 133(1)(f)-(g).
129. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), s 133.
130. The use of "should" in the offsets integrity standards rather than "must" or "shall" raises questions about whether strict adherence is required for a determination to comply with the standards. Given the context, and the purpose of the standards, there is a good argument that it is.
131. However, the choice of words has created uncertainty about this issue: Ward v Williams (1955) 92 CLR 496
132. Finance Facilities Pty Ltd v FCT (1971) 127 CLR 106
133. Pearce D and Geddes R, Statutory Interpretation in Australia (7th ed, LexisNexis, 2011) pp 346-358.
134. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), s 27(4)(d).
135. Australian Government, Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Bill 2011 - Exposure Draft 22/12/2010 (2010) p 57.
136. Explanatory Memorandum, n 3, p 9.
137. Sugiyama T and Michaelowa A, "Reconciling the Design of CDM with Inborn Paradox of Additionality Concept" (2001)1(1) Climate Policy 75
138. Grubb et al, n 16.
139. Michaelowa A, "Determination of Baselines and Additionality for the CDM: A Crucial Element of Credibility of the Climate Regime" in Yamin F (ed), Climate Change and Carbon Markets: A Handbook of Emission Reduction Mechanisms (Routledge, 2005) p 289
140. Grubb et al, n 16
141. Sugiyama and Michaelowa, n 72.
142. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), s 41.
143. Explanatory Memorandum, n 3, p 9
144. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), s 41(3).
145. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), ss 41(2)-(3). Australian Government, Carbon Farming Initiative: Positive List Guidelines - Common Practice (DCCEE, 2011).
146. Australian Government, n 19
147. Northern Territory Government, Northern Territory Climate Change Policy 2009 (2009).
148. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), ss 41(4A).
149. Australian Government, Post-1990 Plantations: Annual Area Planted, FullCAM December 2011 (DCCEE, 2011).
150. Australian Government, Design of the Carbon Farming Initiative: Consultation Paper (DCCEE, 2010) p 11.
151. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Regulations 2011 (Cth), reg 3.5.
152. Australian Government, Methodology for Quantifying Carbon Sequestration by Permanent Environmental Plantings of Native Species using the CFI Reforestation Modelling Tool (DCCEE, 2011) p 6.
153. Nabuurset al, n 59
154. Paulsson, n 58.
155. Primary leakage is also known as activity-shifting.
156. See Watson et al, n 58
157. Paulsson, n 58.
158. In the Explanatory Memorandum (n 3, p 54), the government provides the case where soil carbon is enhanced through greater use of nitrogen fertiliser, leading to increased N2O emissions, as an example of direct (primary) leakage. This is not leakage, which refers to an increase or decrease in emissions outside the project boundary.
159. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), s 133(1)(e).
160. Australian Government, Carbon Farming Initiative: Guidelines for Submitting Methodologies (DCCEE, 2011) pp 4, 11.
161. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), s 133(1)(f)-(g).
162. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), ss 16, 17
163. Explanatory Memorandum, n 3, p 68.
164. Explanatory Memorandum, n 3, p 63.
165. This period can be modified by regulation: Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), s 87.
166. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), s 87.
167. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), s 97.
168. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), s 97(8).
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170. Australian Treasury, Strong Growth, Low Pollution: Modeling a Carbon Price (2011)
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183. 2" (2008) 90 Climatic Change 283
184. Forster P et al, "Changes in Atmospheric Constituents and in Radiative Forcing" in Solomon et al, n 96, p 129.
185. Archer and Brovkin, n 101, p 293.
186. Archer et al, n 101
187. Archer and Brovkin, n 101.
188. National Farmers Federation (NFF), Design of the Carbon Farming Initiative: NFF Submission (2011) p 8
189. NFF, Submission to the Senate Standing Committees on Environment and Communications into Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Bill 2011
190. Carbon Credits (Consequential Amendments) Bill 2011 and Australian National Registry of Emissions Units Bill 2011 (2011)
191. NFF, Farmers Welcome Movement on Carbon Farming Initiative (media release, 24 March 2011)
192. NSW Farmers Association, Submission to the Department of Climate Change and Energy Effi{dotless}ciency: Design of the Carbon Farming Initiative Consultation Paper (2011)
193. Carbon Farmers of Australia and Carbon Farming and Trading Association, Submission to the Senate Environment and Communications Legislation Committee Inquiry into the Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Bill 2011 (2011)
194. AgForce, Design of the Carbon Farming Initiative Consultation Paper: AgForce Submission (2011)
195. ABC, "Farmers Getting Heads Around New Carbon Credits Scheme", AM (13 February 2012).
196. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), s 133(1)(c).
197. See National Inventory Reports from 2003 onwards: UNFCCC Secretariat, GHG National Inventory Submissions (2012).
198. Australian Government, n 19.
199. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), s 133(1)(b).
200. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), s 133(1)(g).
201. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), s 133(1)(d).
202. The framework for auditors is contained in the National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting Act 2007 (Cth).
203. Auditing activities under the CFI Act must be undertaken by a "registered greenhouse and energy auditor" (see eg Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), s 23(1)(d)). "Registered greenhouse and energy auditor" is defined in s 5 according to the definition in the National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting Act 2007 (Cth).
204. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), ss 3438.
205. Huston M and Marland G, "Carbon Management and Biodiversity" (2003) 67 Journal of Environmental Management 77
206. Plantinga A and Wu JJ, "Co-benefits from Carbon Sequestration in Forests: Evaluating Reductions in Agricultural Externalities from an Afforestation Policy in Wisconsin" (2003) 79(1) Land Economics 74
207. US Environmental Protection Agency, Greenhouse Mitigation Potential in U.S. Forestry and Agriculture (2005)
208. Imai N et al, "Co-Benefits of Sustainable Forest Management in Biodiversity Conservation and Carbon Sequestration" (2009) 4(12) PLoS One e8267
209. Watson et al, n 58.
210. Klooster D and Masera O, "Community Forest Management in Mexico: Carbon Mitigation and Biodiversity Conservation through Rural Development" (2000) 10 Global Environmental Change 259
211. Watson et al, n 58.
212. Fry, n 59
213. Paulsson, n 58.
214. German Advisory Council on Global Change (WBGU), The Accounting of Biological Sinks and Sources Under the Kyoto Protocol - A Step Forwards or Backwards for Global Environmental Protection? (1998)
215. Caparrós A and Jacquemont F, "Conflicts Between Biodiversity and Carbon Sequestration Programs: Economic and Legal Implications" (2003) 46 Ecological Economics 143
216. Huston and Marland, n 113
217. US Environmental Protection Agency, n 113
218. Australian State of the Environment Committee, State of the Environment 2011 (2011).
219. Fortmann L, "Great Planting Disasters: Pitfalls in Technical Assistance in Forestry" (1988) 5(1-2) Agriculture and Human Values 49
220. Schirmer J, Socioeconomic Impacts of the Plantation Industry on Rural Communities in Tasmania (2009)
221. Schirmer J, Socioeconomic Impacts of the Plantation Industry on Rural Communities in Western Australia (2009)
222. Australian State of the Environment Committee, n 116.
223. National Farmers Federation, Design of the Carbon Farming Initiative: NFF Submission (2011)
224. Australian Landcare Council, Design of the Carbon Farming Initiative (2011)
225. Pew Environment Group-Australia, Submission on the Design of the Carbon Farming Initiative (2011)
226. WWF Australia, WWF Submission to the Carbon Farming Initiative (2011)
227. Victorian Government, The Carbon Farming Initiative Consultation Paper: Victorian Government Submission (2011)
228. Australian Conservation Foundation, Submission from the Australian Conservation Foundation to the Design of the Carbon Farming Initiative consultation paper (2011)
229. AgForce, n 104
230. NSW Farmers Federation, n 104.
231. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Regulations 2011 (Cth), regs 3.36, 3.37.
232. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), s 28.
233. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), s 27(4)(j).
234. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), ss 22, 83.
235. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), s 168(1)(i).
236. Carbon Credits (Carbon Farming Initiative) Act 2011 (Cth), s 168(1)(o).
237. Explanatory Memorandum, n 3, p 127.
238. Kyoto Protocol, n 12, Arts 6, 12.
239. Ecofys, TUV-SUD and FIELD, The Gold Standard: Requirements (2009) p 40.
240. Boyd W and Salzman J, "The Curious Case of Greening in Carbon Markets" (2011) 41 Environmental Law 73 at 90.
241. Paulsson, n 58.
242. The Gold Standard Foundation, Gold Standard Registry.
243. UNFCCC Secretariat, Issuance Certified Emission Reductions (CERs).