Motivation and Self-Regulation in Addiction: A Call for Convergence

Perspectives on Psychological Science

Volumn 8, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 3-24

  Köpetz, Cǎtǎlina E ^a   Lejuez, Carl W ^a   Wiers, Reinout W ^a   Kruglanski, Arie W ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

addiction; brain disease; motivation; self regulation

Indexed keywords

EID: 84872534641     PISSN: 17456916     EISSN: 17456924     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/1745691612457575     Document Type: Article

References (262)

1. Aarts H.,Dijksterhuis A.Habits as knowledge structures: Automaticity in goal directed behavior.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2000;78:53-63.
2. Aarts H.,Dijksterhuis A.,De Vries P.On the psychology of drinking: Being thirsty and perceptually ready.British Journal of Psychology. 2001;92:631-642.
3. Aarts H.,Gollwitzer P. M.,Hassin R. R.Goal contagion: Perceiving is for pursuing.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2004;87:23-37.
4. Aarts H.,Verplanken B.,van Knippenberg A.Predicting behavior from actions in the past: Repeated decision making or a matter of habit?.Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 1998;28:1355-1374.
5. Ach N. N.Handbuch Der Biologischen Arbeitsmethoden. Abderhalden E., ed. Berlin, Germany: Urban & Schwarzenberg; 1935:.
6. Addiction. (n.d.). In Merriam-Webster's online dictionary (11th ed.). Retrieved from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/addiction.
7. Ainslie G.Picoeconomics: The strategic interaction of successive motivational states within the person. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press; 1992:.
8. Ainslie G.Addiction: Entries and exits. Elster J.Elster J., ed. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation; 1999:209-238.
9. Allport G. W.The functional autonomy of motives.The American Journal of Psychology. 1937;50:141-156.
10. Ames S. L.,Sussman S.,Dent C. W.,Stacy A. W.Implicit cognition and dissociative experiences as predictors of adolescent substance use.American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse. 2005;31:129-162.
11. Anderson J. R.Retrieval of propositional information from long-term memory.Cognitive Psychology. 1974;6:451-474.
12. Anderson J. R.The architecture of cognition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; 1983:.
13. Atkinson J. W.,Birch D.The dynamics of action. Oxford, UK: John Wiley; 1970:.
14. Baker T. B.,Morse E.,Sherman J. E.The Nebraska symposium on motivation: Alcohol use and abuse. Rivers P. C., ed. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press; 1987:257-323.
15. Baker T. B.,Piper M. E.,McCarthy D. E.,Majeskie M. R.,Fiore M. C.Addiction motivation reformulated: An affective processing model of negative reinforcement.Psychological Review. 2004;111:33-51.
16. Balcetis E.,Dunning D.See what you want to see: Motivational influences on visual perception.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2006;91:612-625.
17. Bardo M. T.,Dwoskin L. P.The Nebraska symposium on motivation: Motivational factors in the etiology of drug abuse. Bevins R. A.Bardo M. T., ed. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press; 2004:127-158.
18. Bargh J. A.Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior. Higgins E. T.Sorrentino R. M., ed. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 1990:93-130.
19. Bargh J. A.The automaticity of everyday life: Advances in social cognition. Wyer R. R., ed. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum; 1997:1-61.
20. Bargh J. A.,Gollwitzer P. M.,Lee-Chai A.,Barndollar K.,Trötschel R.The automated will: Nonconscious activation and pursuit of behavioral goals.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2001;81:1014-1027.
21. Bargh J. A.,Huang J. Y.The psychology of goals. Moskowitz G. B.Grant H., ed. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 2009:127-150.
22. Baumeister R. F.,Bratslavsky E.,Muraven M.,Tice D. M.Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource?.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1998;74:1252-1265.
23. Baumeister R. F.,Heatherton T. F.Self-regulation failure: An overview.Psychological Inquiry. 1996;7:1-15.
24. Baumeister R. F.,Vohs K. D.Narcissism as addiction to esteem.Psychological Inquiry. 2001;12:206-210.
25. Becker G.Habits, addictions, and traditions.Kyklos. 1992;4:327-346.
26. Becker G.,Murphy K. M.A theory of rational addiction.Journal of Political Economy. 1988;96:675-700.
27. Becker M. H.,Drachman R. H.,Kirscht J. P.A new approach to explaining sick role behavior in low-income populations.American Journal of Public Health. 1974;64:205-216.
28. Bernheim B. D.,Rangel A.Addiction and cue-triggered decision processes.American Economic Review. 2004;94:1558-1590.
29. Bevins R. A.,Bardo M. T.The Nebraska symposium on motivation: Motivational factors in the etiology of drug abuse. Bevins R. A.Bardo M. T., ed. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press; 2004:ix-xv.
30. Bindra D.A motivational view of learning, performance, and behavior modification.Psychological Review. 1974;81:199-213.
31. Bogen E.The composition of cigarettes and cigarette smoke.Journal of the American Medical Association. 1929;93:1110-1114.
32. Bolla K. I.,Eldreth D. A.,London E. D.,Kiehl K. A.,Mouratidis M.,Contoreggi C. Ernst M.Orbitofrontal cortex dysfunction in abstinent cocaine abusers performing a decision-making task.NeuroImage. 2003;19:1085-1094.
33. Bolles R. C.Reinforcement, expectancy, and learning.Psychological Review. 1972;79:394-409.
34. Brandt A. M.The cigarette century: The rise, fall, and deadly persistence of the product that defined America. New York, NY: Basic Books; 2007:.
35. Brendl C.,Higgins E.Advances in experimental social psychology. Zanna M. P., ed. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 1996:95-160.
36. Brendl C.,Markman A. B.,Messner C.The devaluation effect: Activating a need devalues unrelated objects.Journal of Consumer Research. 2003;29:463-473.
37. Bruce G.,Jones B. T.Handbook of implicit cognition and addiction. Wiers R. W.Stacy A. W., ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; 2006:135-149.
38. Bruner J. S.On perceptual readiness.Psychological Review. 1957;64:123-152.
39. Bushman B. J.,Baumeister R. F.Threatened egotism, narcissism, self-esteem, and direct and displaced aggression: Does self-love or self-hate lead to violence?.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1998;75:219-229.
40. Campbell N. D.Handbook of drug use etiology: Theory, methods, and empirical findings. Scheier L., ed. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2010:29-50.
41. Campbell W.Narcissism and romantic attraction.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1999;77:1254-1270.
42. Campbell W.,Rudich E. A.,Sedikides C.Narcissism, self-esteem, and the positivity of self-views: Two portraits of self-love.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2002;28:358-368.
43. Cardinal R. N.,Parkinson J. A.,Hall J.,Everitt B. J.Emotion and motivation: The role of the amygdala, ventral striatum, and prefrontal cortex.Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 2002;26:321-352.
44. Carver C. S.,Scheier M. F.The self-attention-induced feedback loop and social facilitation.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 1981;17:545-568.
45. Carver C. S.,Scheier M. F.On the self-regulation of behavior. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press; 1998:.
46. Carver C. S.,Scheier M. F.Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications. 2011). Self-regulation of action and affect. In VohsK. D.BaumeisterR. F. (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications (2nd ed., pp. 3-21). New York, NY: Guilford Press.Vohs K. D.Baumeister R. F., ed. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 2011:3-21.
47. Changizi M. A.,McGehee R. M. F.,Hall W. G.Evidence that appetitive responses for dehydration and food-deprivation are learned.Physiology & Behavior. 2002;75:295-304.
48. Chartrand T. L.,Bargh J. A.Automatic activation of impression formation and memorization goals: Nonconscious goal priming reproduces effects of explicit task instructions.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1996;71:464-478.
49. Chein I.,Gerard D.,Lee R.,Rosenfeld E.The road to heroin. New York, NY: Basic Books; 1964:.
50. Chen M.,Bargh J. A.Consequences of automatic evaluation: Immediate behavioral predispositions to approach or avoid the stimulus.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 1999;25:215-224.
51. Conrod P. J.,Castellanos-Ryan N.,Mackie C.Long-term effects of a personality-targeted intervention to reduce alcohol use in adolescents.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 2011;79:296-306.
52. Cooper M. L.Motivations for alcohol use among adolescents: Development and validation of a four-factor model.Psychological Assessment. 1994;6:117-128.
53. Cooper M. L.,Frone M. R.,Russell M.,Mudar P.Drinking to regulate positive and negative emotions: A motivational model of alcohol use.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1995;69:990-1005.
54. Cox W. M.,Fadardi J.,Pothos E. M.The Addiction-Stroop test: Theoretical considerations and procedural recommendations.Psychological Bulletin. 2006;132:443-476.
55. Cox W. M.,Klinger E.A motivational model of alcohol use.Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 1988;97:168-180.
56. Cox W. M.,Klinger E.Why people drink: Parameters of alcohol as a reinforcer. Cox W. M., ed. New York, NY: Gardner Press; 1990:291-314.
57. Cox W. M.,Klinger E.Motivational structure: Relationships with substance use and processes of change.Addictive Behaviors. 2002;27:925-940.
58. Cox W. M.,Klinger E.Handbook of motivational counseling: Concepts, approaches, and assessment. Cox W. M.Klinger E., ed. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons; 2004:121-138.
59. Custers R.,Aarts H.Positive affect as implicit motivator: On the nonconscious operation of behavioral goals.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2005;89:129-142.
60. Custers R.,Aarts H.The unconscious will: How the pursuit of goals operates outside of conscious awareness.Science. 2010;329:47-50.
61. Dabbs J. R.,Bassett J. F.,Brower A. M.,Cate K. L.,DeSantis J. E.,Leander N. P. Poster presented at the 15th annual convention of the American Psychological Society; 2003Atlanta, GA; 2003.
62. DeGrandpre R. J.,Bickel W. K.Advances in behavioral economics: Substance use and abuse. Green L.Kagel J. H., ed. Westport. CT: Ablex; 1996:1-36.
63. De Micheli D.,Formigoni M. L. O. S.Are reasons for the first use of drugs and family circumstances predictors of future use patterns?.Addictive Behaviors. 2002;27:87-100.
64. Deneau G.,Yanagita T.,Seevers M. H.Self-administration of psychoactive substances by the monkey.Psychopharmacology. 1969;16:30-48.
65. Devine D. P.,Leone P.,Pocock D.,Wise R. A.Differential involvement of ventral tegmental area mu, delta and kappa opioid receptors in modulation of basal mesolimbic dopamine release: In vivo microdialysis studies.Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 1993;266:1236-1246.
66. Devine D. P.,Wise R. A.Self-administration of morphine, DAMGO, and DPDPE into the ventral tegmental area of rats.Journal of Neuroscience. 1994;14:1978-1984.
67. Devine P. G.Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1989;56:5-18.
68. Diener E.,Suh E. M.,Lucas R. E.,Smith H. L.Subjective well-being: Three decades of progress.Psychological Bulletin. 1999;125:276-302.
69. DiFranza J. R.,Savageau J. A.,Fletcher K.,Ockene J. K.,Rigotti N. A.,McNeill A. D. Wood C.Measuring the loss of autonomy over nicotine use in adolescents: The DANDY (Development and Assessment of Nicotine Dependence in Youths) study.Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine. 2002;156:397-403.
70. Duckworth K. L.,Bargh J. A.,Garcia M.,Chaiken S.The automatic evaluation of novel stimuli.Psychological Science. 2002;13:513-519.
71. Ettenberg A.,Camp C. H.Haloperidol induces a partial reinforcement extinction effect in rats: Implications for a dopamine involvement in food reward.Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior. 1986;25:813-821.
72. Everitt B. J.,Robbins T. W.Neural systems of reinforcement for drug addiction: From actions to habits to compulsion.Nature Neuroscience. 2005;8:1481-1489.
73. Fallon A. E.,Rozin P.The psychological bases of food rejections by humans.Ecology of Food and Nutrition. 1983;13:15-26.
74. Ferguson M. J.,Bargh J. A.Liking is for doing: The effects of goal pursuit on automatic evaluation.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2004;87:557-572.
75. Field M.,Mogg K.,Bradley B. P.Automaticity of smoking behavior: The relationship between dual-task performance, daily cigarette intake and subjective nicotine effects.Journal of Psychopharmacology. 2006;20:799-805.
76. Fillmore M. T.,Vogel-Sprott M.,Wiers R. W.,Stacy A. W.Handbook of implicit cognition and addiction. Wiers R. W. H. J.Stacy A. W., ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; 2006:293-306.
77. Fishbach A.,Ferguson M. F.Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles. Kruglanski A. W.Higgins E. T., ed. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 2007:490-515.
78. Fishbach A.,Friedman R. S.,Kruglanski A. W.Leading us not into temptation: Momentary allurements elicit overriding goal activation.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2003;84:296-309.
79. Fishbach A.,Shah J. Y.Self-control in action: Implicit dispositions toward goals and away from temptations.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2006;90:820-832.
80. Fishbach A.,Shah J. Y.,Kruglanski A. W.Emotional transfer in goal systems.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 2004;40:723-738.
81. Fisher E. B.Advances in behavioral economics: Substance use and abuse. Green L.Kagel J. H., ed. Norwood, NJ: Ablex; 1996:207-236.
82. Fitzsimons G. M.,Bargh J. A.Thinking of you: Nonconscious pursuit of interpersonal goals associated with relationship partners.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2003;84:148-163.
83. Flagel S. B.,Clark J. J.,Robinson T. E.,Mayo L.,Czuj A.,Willuhn I. Akil H.A selective role for dopamine in stimulus-reward learning.Nature. 2011;469:53-57.
84. Flay B. R.,Petraitis J.Advances in medical sociology: A reconsideration of models of health behavior change. Albrecht G. S., ed. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press; 1994:37-57.
85. Förster J.,Liberman N.,Higgins E. T.Accessibility from active and fulfilled goals.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 2005;41:220-239.
86. Franken I. A.Drug craving and addiction: Integrating psychological and neuropsychopharmacological approaches.Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry. 2003;27:563-579.
87. Fujita K.,Trope Y.,Liberman N.,Levin-Sagi M.Construal levels and self-control.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2006;90:351-367.
88. Gahlinger P.Illegal drugs: A complete guide to their history, chemistry, use, and abuse. New York, NY: Plume; 2004:.
89. Gailliot M. T.,Baumeister R. F.,DeWall C. N.,Maner J. K.,Plant E. A.,Tice D. M.Self-control relies on glucose as a limited energy source: Willpower is more than a metaphor.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2007;92:325-336.
90. Glickman S. E.,Schiff B. B.A biological theory of reinforcement.Psychological Review. 1967;74:81-109.
91. Gollwitzer P. M.The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior. Gollwitzer P. M.Bargh J. A., ed. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 1996:287-312.
92. Gollwitzer P. M.,Moskowitz G. B.Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles. Higgins E. T.Kruglanski A. W., ed. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 1996:361-399.
93. Advances in behavioral economics: Substance use and abuse. Green L.Kagel J., ed. Westport. CT: Ablex; 1996:.
94. Grenard J. L.,Ames S. L.,Wiers R. W.,Thush C.,Sussman S.,Stacy A. W.Working memory capacity moderates the predictive effects of drug-related associations on substance use.Psychology of Addictive Behaviors. 2008;22:426-432.
95. Heckhausen H.Motivation: Cognitive-psychological cleaving of a summary construct.Psychologische Rundschau. 1977;28:175-189.
96. Heckhausen H.,Kuhl J.Goal directed behavior. Frese M.Sabini J., ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum; 1985:78-94.
97. Hester R.,Garavan H.Executive dysfunction in cocaine addiction: Evidence for discordant frontal, cingulate, and cerebellar activity.Journal of Neuroscience. 2004;24:11017-11022.
98. Heyman G. M.Addiction: A disorder of choice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; 2009:.
99. Higgins E. T.Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles. Higgins E. T.Kruglanski A. W., ed. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 1996:133-168.
100. Higgins E. T.,King G.Personality, cognition, and social interaction. Cantor N.Kihlstrom J., ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum; 1981:69-121.
101. Higgins E. T.,Rholes W. S.,Jones C. R.Category accessibility and impression formation.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 1977;13:141-154.
102. Hofmann W.,Gschwendner T.,Friese M.,Wiers R. W.,Schmitt M.Working memory capacity and self-regulatory behavior: Toward an individual differences perspective on behavior determination by automatic versus controlled processes.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2008;95:962-977.
103. Holden C."Behavioral" addictions: Do they exist?.Science. 2001;294:980-982.
104. Houben K.,Nederkoorn C.,Wiers R. W.,Jansen A.Resisting temptation: Decreasing alcohol-related affect and drinking behavior by training response inhibition.Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2011;116:132-136.
105. Houben K.,Wiers R. W.Implicitly positive about alcohol? Implicit positive associations predict drinking behavior.Addictive Behaviors. 2008;33:979-986.
106. Houben K.,Wiers R. W.,Jansen A.Getting a grip on drinking behavior: Training working memory to reduce alcohol abuse.Psychological Science. 2011;22:968-975.
107. Houben K.,Wiers R. W.,Roefs A.Handbook of implicit cognition and addiction. Wiers R. W.Stacy A. W., ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; 2006:91-104.
108. Hyman S. E.Why does the brain prefer opium to broccoli?.Harvard Review of Psychiatry. 1994;2:43-46.
109. Hyman S. E.,Malenka R. C.,Nestler E. J.Neural mechanisms of addiction: The role of reward-related learning and memory.Annual Review of Neuroscience. 2006;29:565-598.
110. Jacobson N. S.,Dobson K. S.,Truax P. A.,Addis M. E.,Koerner K.,Gollan J. K. Prince S. E.A component analysis of cognitive-behavioral treatment for depression.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 1996;64:295-304.
111. Jentsch J. D.,Taylor J. R.Impulsivity resulting from frontostriatal dysfunction in drug abuse: implications for the control of behavior by reward-related stimuli.Psychopharmacology. 1999;146:373-390.
112. Jessor R.,Jessor S. L.Problem behavior and psychosocial development: A longitudinal study of youth. New York, NY: Academic Press; 1977:.
113. Jones B. T.,Corbin W.,Fromme K.A review of expectancy theory and alcohol consumption.Addiction. 2001;96:57-72.
114. Jones E. E.,Thibaut J. W.Person perception and interpersonal behavior. Tagiuri R.Petrullo L., ed. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press; 1958:161-178.
115. Jones R. T.Marijuana research findings. Peterson R. C., ed. Washington, DC: National Institute on Drug Abuse; 1980:54-80.
116. Kamarajan C.,Porjesz B.,Jones K. A.,Choi K.,Chorlian D. B.,Padmanabhapillai A. Begleiter H.Alcoholism is a disinhibitory disorder: Neurophysiological evidence from a Go/No-Go task.Biological Psychology. 2005;69:353-373.
117. Kandel D.Stages in adolescent involvement in drug use.Science. 1975;190:912-914.
118. Kandel D. B.,Jessor R.Stages and pathways of drug involvement: Examining the gateway hypothesis. Kandel D. B., ed. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press; 2002:365-372.
119. Kasser T.,Ryan R. M.A dark side of the American dream: Correlates of financial success as a central life aspiration.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1993;65:410-422.
120. Klinger E.Consequences of commitment to and disengagement from incentives.Psychological Review. 1975;82:1-25.
121. Klinger E.Meaning and void: Inner experience and the incentives in people's lives. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press; 1977:.
122. Knee C.,Neighbors C.Self-determination, perception of peer pressure, and drinking among college students.Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 2002;32:522-543.
123. Kober H.,Kross E. F.,Mischel W.,Hart C. L.,Ochsner K. N.Regulation of craving by cognitive strategies in cigarette smokers.Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2010;106:52-55.
124. Koob G. F.,Le Moal M.Drug addiction, dysregulation of reward, and allostasis.Neuropsychopharmacology. 2001;24:97-129.
125. Koob G. F.,Le Moal M.Addiction and the brain antireward system.Annual Review of Psychology. 2008;59:29-53.
126. Koob G. F.,Volkow N. D.Neurocircuitry of addiction.Neuropsychopharmacology. 2010;35:217-238.
127. Köpetz C.,Faber T.,Fishbach A.,Kruglanski A. W.The multifinality constraints effect: How goal multiplicity narrows the means set to a focal end.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2011;100:810-826.
128. KöpetzC.PickoverA.ColladoA. C.CalvinN.LejuezC. W. (2012). When the end justifies (extreme) means: Automatic approach tendencies of sex-trade as means to drug obtainment. Unpublished manuscript.
129. Kruglanski A. W.The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior. Gollwitzer P. M.Bargh J. A., ed. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 1996:599-618.
130. Kruglanski A. W.,Belanger J. J.,Chen X.,Köpetz C.,Pierro A.,Mannetti L.The energetics of motivated cognition: A force-field analysis.Psychological Review. 2012;119:1-20.
131. Kruglanski A. W.,Köpetz C.Oxford handbook of human action. Morsella E.Bargh J. A.Gollwitzer P. M., ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2009a:350-367.
132. Kruglanski A. W.,Köpetz C.The psychology of goals. Moskowitz G. B.Grant H., ed. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 2009b:27-55.
133. Kruglanski A. W.,Pierro A.,Sheveland A.How many roads lead to Rome? Equifinality set-size and commitment to goals and means.European Journal of Social Psychology. 2011;41:344-352.
134. Kruglanski A. W.,Shah J. Y.,Fishbach A.,Friedman R.,Chun W. Y.,Sleeth-Keppler D.A theory of goal systems.Advances in Experimental Social Psychology. 2002;34:331-378.
135. Kuhl J.Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior. Sorrentino R. M.Higgins E. T., ed. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 1986:404-434.
136. Kuntsche E.,Knibbe R.,Gmel G.,Engels R.Why do young people drink? A review of drinking motives.Clinical Psychology Review. 2005;25:841-861.
137. Laibson D.A cue theory of consumption.Quarterly Journal of Economics. 2001;66:81-120.
138. Leander N.,Shah J. Y.,Chartrand T. L.Moments of weakness: The implicit context dependencies of temptations.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2009;35:853-866.
139. Lee A.,Köpetz C.,Calvin N.,Lejuez C. W. Poster presented at the 72nd Annual Meeting of the College for Problems on Drug Dependence; 2010Scottsdale, AZ; 2010.
140. Lejuez C. W.,Bornovalova M. A.,Daughters S. B.,Curtin J. J.Differences in impulsivity and sexual risk behavior among inner-city crack/cocaine users and heroin users.Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2005;77:169-175.
141. Lejuez C. W.,Hopko D. R.,Acierno R.,Daughters S. B.,Pagoto S. L.Ten year revision of the brief behavioral activation treatment for depression: Revised treatment manual.Behavior Modification. 2011;35:111-161.
142. Lejuez C. W.,Hopko D. R.,Hopko S. D.A brief behavioral activation treatment for depression: Treatment manual.Behavior Modification. 2001;25:255-286.
143. Leshner A. I.Addiction is a brain disease, and it matters.Science. 1997;278:45-47.
144. Lewin K. K.A dynamic theory of personality. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 1935:.
145. Lewinsohn P. M.The psychology of depression: Contemporary theory and research. Friedman R. J.Katz M. M., ed. Oxford, England: John Wiley & Sons; 1974:157-185.
146. Lewis M.Shame: The exposed self. New York, NY: Free Press; 1992:.
147. Lindesmith A. R.,Gagnon J.Anomie and deviant behavior. Clinard M. B., ed. New York, NY: Free Press; 1964:158-188.
148. Loewenstein G.Out of control: Visceral influences on behavior.Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes. 1996;65:272-292.
149. Loewenstein G.Exotic preferences: Behavioral economics and human motivation. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2007:.
150. Logan T. K.,Cole J.,Leukefeld C.Gender differences in the context of sex exchange among individuals with a history of crack use.AIDS Education and Prevention. 2003;15:448-464.
151. Logan T. K.,Leukefeld C.HIV risk behavior among bisexual and heterosexual drug users.Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 2000;32:239-248.
152. MacPherson L.,Tull M. T.,Matusiewicz A. K.,Rodman S.,Strong D. R.,Kahler C. W. Lejuez C. W.Randomized controlled trial of behavioral activation smoking cessation treatment for smokers with elevated depressive symptoms.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 2010;78:55-61.
153. Magidson J. F.,Gorka S. M.,MacPherson L.,Hopko D. R.,Blanco C.,Lejuez C. W.,Daughters S. B.Examining the effect of the Life Enhancement Treatment for Substance Use (LETS ACT) on residential substance abuse treatment retention.Addictive Behaviors. 2011;36:615-623.
154. Mann T.,Ward A.To eat or not to eat: Implications of the attentional myopia model for restrained eaters.Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 2004;113:90-98.
155. Mann T.,Ward A.Attention, self-control, and health behaviors.Current Directions in Psychological Science. 2007;16:280-283.
156. Markman A. B.,Brendl C.Applying social cognition to consumer-focused strategy. Kardes F. R.Herr P. M.Nantel J., ed. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum; 2005:183-199.
157. Markman A. B.,Brendl C.,Kim K.Preference and the specificity of goals.Emotion. 2007;7:680-684.
158. Relapse Prevention: Maintenance strategies in the treatment of addictive behaviors. Marlatt G. A.Gordon J. R., ed. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 1985:.
159. McClelland D. C.,Atkinson J. W.The projective expression of needs: I. The effect of different intensities of the hunger drive on perception.Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied. 1948;25:205-222.
160. McCulloch K. C.,Ferguson M. J.,Kawada C. C. K.,Bargh J. A.Taking a closer look: On the operation of nonconscious impression formation.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 2008;44:614-623.
161. Mello N. K.,Mendelson J. H.Operant analysis of drinking habits of chronic alcoholics.Nature. 1965;206:43-46.
162. Metcalfe J.,Mischel W.A hot/cool-system analysis of delay of gratification: Dynamics of willpower.Psychological Review. 1999;106:3-19.
163. Mogg K.,Bradley B. P.Selective processing of smoking-related cues in smokers: Manipulation of deprivation level and comparison of three measures of processing bias.Journal of Psychopharmacology. 2002;16:385-392.
164. Mogg K.,Bradley B. P.,Field M.,De Houwer J.Eye movements to smoking related pictures in smokers: Relationship between attentional biases and implicit and explicit measures of stimulus valence.Addiction. 2003;98:825-836.
165. Moore M.,Weiss S.Reasons for non-drinking among Israeli adolescents of four religions.Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 1995;38:45-50.
166. Morf C. C.,Rhodewalt F.Unraveling the paradoxes of narcissism: A dynamic self-regulatory processing model.Psychological Inquiry. 2001;12:177-196.
167. Moskowitz G. B.Preconscious effects of temporary goals on attention.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 2002;38:397-404.
168. Munafo M.,Mogg K.,Roberts S.,Bradley B. P.,Murphy M.Selective processing of smoking-related cues in current smokers, ex-smokers and never-smokers on the modified Stroop task.Journal of Psychopharmacology. 2003;17:310-316.
169. Munakata Y.,Herd S. A.,Chatham C. H.,Depue B. E.,Banich M. T.,O'Reilly R. C.A unified framework for inhibitory control.Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 2011;15:453-459.
170. Muraven M.,Tice D. M.,Baumeister R. E.Self-control as a limited resource: Regulatory depletion patterns.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1998;74:774-789.
171. National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2012a). Drug abuse is costly. Retrieved from http://archives.drugabuse.gov/about/welcome/aboutdrugabuse/magnitude/.
172. National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2012b). Drugs, brain, and behavior: The science of addiction. Retrieved from http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/science-addiction.
173. Nöel X.,Bechara A.,Dan B.,Hanak C.,Verbanck P.Response inhibition deficit is involved in poor decision making under risk in nonamnesic individuals with alcoholism.Neuropsychology. 2007;21:778-786.
174. O'Brien C. P.Experimental analysis of conditioning factors in human narcotic addiction.Pharmacological Review. 1976;27:533-543.
175. Orford J.Addiction as excessive appetite.Addiction. 2001;96:15-31.
176. Ostafin B. D.,Palfai T. P.Handbook of implicit cognition and addiction. Wiers R. W.Stacy A. W., ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; 2006:393-407.
177. Ouellette J. A.,Wood W.Habit and intention in everyday life: The multiple processes by which past behavior predicts future behavior.Psychological Bulletin. 1998;124:54-74.
178. Palamar J. J.,Mukherjee P. P.,Halkitis P. N.A longitudinal investigation of powder cocaine use among club-drug using gay and bisexual men.Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs. 2008;69:806-813.
179. Palfai T. P.,Ostafin B. D.Alcohol-related motivational tendencies in hazardous drinkers: Assessing implicit response tendencies using the modified-IAT.Behavior Research and Therapy. 2003;41:1149-1162.
180. Palfai T. P.,Weafer J.College student drinking and meaning in the pursuit of life goals.Psychology of Addictive Behaviors. 2006;20:131-134.
181. Papies E.,Stroebe W.,Aarts H.Pleasure in the mind: Restrained eating and spontaneous hedonic thoughts about food.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 2007;43:810-817.
182. Peele S.What I would most like to know: How can addiction occur with other than drug involvements?.British Journal of Addiction. 1985;80:23-25.
183. Peele S.,Brodsky A.Love and addiction. Oxford, England: Taplinger; 1975:.
184. Perry M. J.,Mandell W.Psychosocial factors associated with the initiation of cocaine use among marijuana users.Psychology of Addictive Behaviors. 1995;9:91-100.
185. Goal concepts in personality and social psychology. Pervin L. A., ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum; 1989:.
186. Rachlin H.Four teleological theories of addiction.Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. 1997;4:462-473.
187. Redish A. D.Addiction as a computational process gone awry.Science. 2004;306:1944-1947.
188. Redish A. D.,Jensen S.,Johnson A.A unified framework for addiction: Vulnerabilities in the decision process.Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 2008;31:415-437.
189. Rescorla R. A.,Holland P. C.Behavioral studies of associative learning in animals.Annual Review of Psychology. 1982;33:265-308.
190. Reynolds E. K.,MacPherson L.,Tull M. T.,Baruch D. E.,Lejuez C. W.Integration of the brief behavioral activation treatment for depression (BATD) into a college orientation program: Depression and alcohol outcomes.Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2011;58:555-564.
191. Rhodewalt F.,Madrian J. C.,Cheney S.Narcissism, self-knowledge organization, and emotional reactivity: The effect of daily experiences on self-esteem and affect.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 1998;24:75-87.
192. Riley S. C. E.,James C.,Gregory D.,Dingle H.,Cadger M.Patterns of recreational drug use at dance events in Edinburgh, Scotland.Addiction. 2001;96:1035-1047.
193. Rip B.,Fortin S.,Vallerand R. J.The relationship between passion and injury in dance students.Journal of Dance Medicine & Science. 2006;10:14-20.
194. Robbins T. W.,Everitt B. J.Interaction of the dopaminergic system with mechanisms of associative learning and cognition: Implications for drug abuse.Psychological Science. 1999;10:199-202.
195. Robinson T. E.,Berridge K. C.The neural basis of drug craving: An incentive sensitization theory of addiction.Brain Research Reviews. 1993;18:247-291.
196. Robinson T. E.,Berridge K. C.Addiction.Annual Review of Psychology. 2003;54:25-53.
197. Robinson T. E.,Berridge K. C.Incentive-sensitization and drug "wanting.".Psychopharmacology. 2004;171:352-353.
198. Rogers R. D.,Robbins T. W.Investigating the neurocognitive deficits associated with chronic drug misuse.Current Opinion in Neurobiology. 2001;11:250-257.
199. Rooke S. E.,Hine D. W.,Thorsteinsson E. B.Implicit cognition and substance use: A meta-analysis.Addictive Behaviors. 2008;33:1314-1328.
200. Scitovsky T.The joyless economy. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 1992:.
201. Shaffer H. J.,LaPlante D. A.,LaBrie R. A.,Kidman R. C.,Donato A. N.,Stanton M. V.Toward a syndrome model of addiction: Multiple expressions, common etiology.Harvard Review of Psychiatry. 2004;12:367-374.
202. Shah J.Automatic for the people: How representations of significant others implicitly affect goal pursuit.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2003;84:661-681.
203. Shah J.Handbook of motivation science. Shah J.Gardner W., ed. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 2008:xi-xiv.
204. Shah J. Y.,Friedman R.,Kruglanski A. W.Forgetting all else: On the antecedents and consequences of goal shielding.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2002;83:1261-1280.
205. Shah J. Y.,Kruglanski A. W.Priming against your will: How accessible alternatives affect goal pursuit.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 2002;38:368-383.
206. Shah J. Y.,Kruglanski A. W.When opportunity knocks: Bottom-up priming of goals by means and its effects on self-regulation.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2003;84:1109-1122.
207. Shaham Y.,Erb S.,Stewart J.Stress-induced relapse to heroin and cocaine seeking in rats: A review.Brain Research Reviews. 2000;33:13-33.
208. Shalev U.,Grimm J. W.,Shaham Y.Neurobiology of relapse to heroin and cocaine seeking: A review.Pharmacological Review. 2002;54:1-42.
209. Sheeran P.,Aarts H.,Custers R.,Rivis A.,Webb T. L.,Cooke R.The goal dependent automaticity of drinking habits.British Journal of Social Psychology. 2005;44:47-63.
210. Sherman S. J.,Rose J. S.,Koch K.,Presson C. C.,Chassin L.Implicit and explicit attitudes toward cigarette smoking: The effects of context and motivation.Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology. 2003;22:13-39.
211. Shiffman S.Cigarette smoking as a dependence process. Krasnegor N. A., ed. Washington, DC: National Institute on Drug Abuse; 1979:158-184.
212. Sirgy M.Materialism and quality of life.Social Indicators Research. 1998;43:227-260.
213. Skinner B. F.Two types of conditioned reflex: A reply to Miller and Konorski.Journal of General Psychology. 1937;16:272-279.
214. Skinner B. F.Science and human behavior. Oxford, England: Macmillan; 1953:.
215. Smith R.Perspectives on media effects. Bryant J.Zillmann D., ed. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum; 1986:109-128.
216. Solarz A. K.Latency of instrumental responses as a function of compatibility with the meaning of eliciting verbal signs.Journal of Experimental Psychology. 1960;59:239-245.
217. Solomon R. L.Psychopathology: Experimental models. Maser J. D.Seligman M. P., ed. New York, NY: Henry Holt; 1977:66-103.
218. Solomon R. L.,Corbit J. D.An opponent-process theory of motivation: II. Cigarette addiction.Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 1973;81:158-171.
219. Solomon R. L.,Corbit J. D.An opponent-process theory of motivation: I. Temporal dynamics of affect.Psychological Review. 1974;81:119-145.
220. Spence K. W.Behavior theory and conditioning. Spence K. W., ed. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press; 1956:165-198.
221. Spijkerman R.,van den Eijnden R. M.,Engels R. E.Self-comparison processes, prototypes, and smoking onset among early adolescents.Preventive Medicine: An International Journal Devoted to Practice and Theory. 2005;40:785-794.
222. Stacy A. W.Memory activation and expectancy as prospective predictors of alcohol and marijuana use.Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 1997;106:61-73.
223. Stacy A. W.,Ames S. L.,Grenard J. L.Handbook of implicit cognition and addiction. Wiers R. W.Stacy A. W., ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; 2006:75-90.
224. Stewart J.,de Wit H.,Eikelboom R.Role of unconditioned and conditioned drug effects in the self-administration of opiates and stimulants.Psychological Review. 1984;91:251-268.
225. Stewart J.,Wise R. A.Reinstatement of heroin self-administration habits: Morphine prompts and naltrexone discourages renewed responding after extinction.Psychopharmacology. 1992;108:79-84.
226. Results from the 2010 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings. Rockville, MD: Author; 2011:.
227. Taylor S. E.,Fiske S. T.Advances in experimental social psychology. Berkowitz L., ed. New York, NY: Academic Press; 1978:249-288.
228. Tiffany S. T.A cognitive model of drug urges and drug-use behavior: Role of automatic and nonautomatic processes.Psychological Review. 1990;97:147-168.
229. Tiffany S. T.,Conklin C. A.A cognitive processing model of alcohol craving and compulsive alcohol use.Addiction. 2000;95:S145-S153.
230. Toates F. M.Motivational systems. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press; 1986:.
231. Tolman E. C.Psychology versus immediate experience.Philosophy of Science. 1935;2:356-380.
232. Townshend J. M.,Duka T.Attentional bias associated with alcohol cues: Differences between heavy and occasional social drinkers.Psychopharmacology. 2001;157:67-74.
233. Vallerand R. J.,Blanchard C.,Mageau G. A.,Koestner R.,Ratelle C.,Léonard M. Marsolais J.Les passions de l'âme: On obsessive and harmonious passion.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2003;85:756-767.
234. Veling H.,Aarts H.,Papies E. K.Using stop signals to inhibit chronic dieters' responses toward palatable foods.Behaviour Research and Therapy. 2011;49:771-780.
235. Vohs K. D.,Baumeister R. F.Introduction to special issue: Emotion and decision making.Review of General Psychology. 2007;11:98.
236. Vohs K. D.,Baumeister R. R.Handbook of motivation science. Shah J. Y.Gardner W. L., ed. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 2008:373-389.
237. Vohs K. D.,Heatherton T. F.Self-regulatory failure: A resource-depletion approach.Psychological Science. 2000;11:249-254.
238. Volkow N. D.,Fowler J. S.,Wolf A. P.,Hitzemann R.Changes in brain glucose metabolism in cocaine dependence and withdrawal.American Journal of Psychiatry. 1991;148:621-626.
239. Volkow N. D.,Hitzemann R.,Wang G.-J.,Fowler J. S.Decreased brain metabolism in neurologically intact healthy alcoholics.American Journal of Psychiatry. 1992;149:1016-1022.
240. Volkow N. D.,Wise R. A.How can drug addiction help us understand obesity?.Nature Neuroscience. 2005;8:555-560.
241. Waldrop A. E.,Back S. E.,Verduin M. L.,Brady K. T.Triggers for cocaine and alcohol use in the presence and absence of posttraumatic stress disorder.Addictive Behaviors. 2007;32:634-639.
242. Ward A.,Mann T.Don't mind if I do: Disinhibited eating under cognitive load.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2000;78:753-763.
243. Waters A. J.,Shiffman S.,Sayette M. A.,Paty J. A.,Gwaltney C. J.,Balabanis M. H.Attentional bias predicts outcome in smoking cessation.Health Psychology. 2003;22:378-387.
244. Weil A.,Rosen W.From chocolate to morphine. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company; 1993:.
245. Weinstein A. M.,Feldtkeller B. T.,Law F.,Myles J.,Nutt D. J.The processing of automatic thoughts of drug use and craving in opiate-dependent individuals.Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology. 2000;8:549-553.
246. Wiers R. W.,Eberl C.,Rinck M.,Becker E. S.,Lindenmeyer J.Retraining automatic action tendencies changes alcoholic patients' approach bias for alcohol and improves treatment outcome.Psychological Science. 2011;22:490-497.
247. Wiers R. W.,van de,Luitgaarden J.,van den Wildenberg E.,Smulders F. T. Y.Challenging implicit and explicit alcohol-related cognitions in young heavy drinkers.Addiction. 2005;100:806-819.
248. Wiers R. W.,Van Woerden N.,Smulders F. Y.,De Jong P. J.Implicit and explicit alcohol-related cognitions in heavy and light drinkers.Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 2002;111:648-658.
249. Wikler A.Recent progress in research on die neurophysiologic basis of morphine addiction.American Journal of Psychiatry. 1948;105:329-338.
250. Wilson T. D.,Centerbar D. B.,Kermer D. A.,Gilbert D. T.The pleasures of uncertainty: Prolonging positive moods in ways people do not anticipate.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2005 88;:5-21.
251. Wise R. A.Neuroleptics and operant behavior: The anhedonia hypothesis.Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 1982;5:39-87.
252. Wise R. A.Methods of assessing the reinforcing properties of abused drugs. Bozarth M. A., ed. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag; 1987:117-141.
253. Wise R. A.Steven's handbook of experimental psychology: Learning, motivation, and emotion. 2002). Addiction. In PashlerH.GallistelR. (Eds.), Steven's handbook of experimental psychology: Learning, motivation, and emotion (3rd ed., Vol. 3, pp. 801-840). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.Pashler H.Gallistel R., ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons; 2002:801-840.
254. Wise R. A.The Nebraska symposium on motivation: Motivational factors in the etiology of drug abuse. Bevins R. A.Bardo M. T., ed. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press; 2004:159-195.
255. Wise R. A.,Bozarth M. A.A psychomotor stimulant theory of addiction.Psychological Review. 1987;94:469-492.
256. Woods J. H.,Ikomi F.,Winger G.Biological aspects of alcohol. Roach M. K.McIsaae W. M.Creaven P. J., ed. Austin: University of Texas Press; 1971:371-388.
257. Woods J. H.,Schuster C. R.Stimulus properties of drugs. Thompson T.Pickens R., ed. New York, NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts; 1971:163-175.
258. Woodworth R. S.Columbia University lectures: Dynamic psychology. New York, NY: Columbia University Press; 1918:177-206.
259. Yaxley R. H.,Zwaan R. A.Attentional bias affects change detection.Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. 2005;12:1106-1111.
260. Young P. T.Motivation and emotion: A survey of the determinants of human and animal activity. Oxford, England: Wiley; 1961:.
261. Zack M.,Belsito L.,Scher R.,Eissenberg T.,Corrigall W. A.Effects of abstinence and smoking on information processing in adolescent smokers.Psychopharmacology. 2001;153:249-257.
262. Zhang Y.,Fishbach A.,Kruglanski A. W.The dilution model: How additional goals undermine the perceived instrumentality of a shared path.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2007;92:389-401.