Ecological palaeoecology and conservation biology: Controversies, challenges, and compromises

International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services and Management

Volumn 8, Issue 4, 2012, Pages 292-304

  Birks, H John B ^a,b,c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BERGEN   (Norway)

^b UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^c UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Baseline conditions; Diversity; Ecological processes; Land use; Landscapes; Long term ecology; Novel ecosystems; Pollen analysis; Resilience; Thresholds

Indexed keywords

BASELINE CONDITIONS; CONSERVATION PLANNING; CULTURAL HISTORY; ECOSYSTEM DYNAMICS; ECOSYSTEM RESILIENCE; LAND USE CHANGE; LANDSCAPE CHANGE; LANDSCAPE ECOLOGY; LANDSCAPE HISTORY; PALEOECOLOGY; PALYNOLOGY; THRESHOLD;

EID: 84872311632     PISSN: 21513732     EISSN: 21513740     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/21513732.2012.701667     Document Type: Article

References (172)

1. Allison TD, Moeller RE, Davis MB. 1986. Pollen in laminated sediments provides evidence for a mid-Holocene forest pathogen outbreak. Ecology. 67(4): 1101-1105.
2. Andersen MD, Baker WL. 2005. Reconstructing landscapescale tree invasion using survey notes in the Medicine Bow Mountains, Wyoming, USA. Landscape Ecol. 21(2): 243-258. doi:10.1007/s10980-005-1938-3.
3. Anderson P, Buckler M, Walker J. 2009. Moorland restoration: potential and progress. In: Bonn A, Allott T, Hubacek K, Stewart JR, editors. Drivers of environmental change in uplands. Abingdon (UK): Routledge. p. 432-448.
4. Anonymous. 2009. Bridging the biodiversity gap. Nat Geosci. 2:733. doi:10.1038/ngeo688.
5. BaléeW. 2006. The research program of historical ecology. Annu Rev Anthropol. 35:75-98. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.35. 081705.123231.
6. Bennion H, Fluin J, Simpson GL. 2004. Assessing eutrophication and reference conditions for Scottish freshwater lochs using subfossil diatoms. J Appl Ecol. 41(1):124-138. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2004.00874.x.
7. Bennion H, Simpson GL. 2011. The use of diatom records to establish reference conditions for UK lakes subject to eutrophication. J Paleolimnol. 45(4):469-488. doi:10.1007/s10933-010-9422-8.
8. Bennion H, Simpson GL, Anderson NJ, Clarke G, Dong X, Hobæk A, Guilizzoni P, Marchetto A, Sayer CD, Thies H, et al. 2011. Defining ecological and chemical reference conditions and restoration targets for nine European lakes. J Paleolimnol. 45(4):415-431. doi:10.1007/ s10933-010-9418-4.
9. Bhagwat SA, Dudley N, Harrop SR. 2011. Religious following in biodiversity hotspots: challenges and opportunities for conservation and development. Conserv Lett. 4(3):234-240. doi:10.1111/j.1755-263X.2011.00169.x.
10. Birks HH, Battarbee RW, Birks HJB. 2000. The development of the aquatic ecosystem at Krakenes Lake, western Norway, during the late glacial and early Holocene: a synthesis. J Paleolimnol. 23(1):91-114.
11. Birks HH, Birks HJB. 2006. Multi-proxy studies in palaeolimnology. Veg Hist Archaeobot. 15(4):235-251.
12. Birks HJB. 1988. Long-term ecological change in the British Uplands. In: Usher MB and Thompson DBA, editors. Ecological change in the uplands. Oxford (UK): Blackwell. p. 37-56.
13. Birks HJB. 1993. Quaternary paleoecology and vegetation science: current contributions and possible future developments. Rev Palaeobot Palynol. 79(1-2):153-177.
14. Birks HJB. 1996. Contributions of Quaternary palaeoecology to nature conservation. J Veg Sci. 7(1):89-98.
15. Birks HJB. 2005. Mind the gap: how open were European primeval forests? Trends Ecol Evol. 20(4):154-156.
16. Birks HJB, Berge F, Boyle JF, Cumming BF. 1990a. A palaeoecological test of the land use hypothesis for recent lake acidification in south west Norway using hill top lakes. J Paleolimnol. 4:69-85.
17. Birks HJB, Birks HH. 1980. Quaternary palaeoecology. (Reprinted 2004 by the Blackburn Press, New Jersey.) London (UK): Edward Arnold.
18. Birks HJB, Heiri O, Seppä H, Bjune AE. 2010. Strengths and weaknesses of quantitative climate reconstructions based on late-quaternary biological proxies. Open Ecol J. 3 (Special issue 1):68-110. doi:10.2174/1874213001003020068.
19. Birks HJB, Line JM, Juggins S, Stevenson AC, ter Braak CJF. 1990b. Diatoms and pH reconstruction. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B. 327(1240):263-278.
20. Birks HJB, Lotter AF, Juggins S, Smol JP, editors. 2012. Tracking environmental change using lake sediments volume 5: data handling and numerical techniques. Dordrecht (The Netherlands): Springer.
21. Bonn A, Allott T, Hubacek K, Stewart JR, editors. 2009. Drivers of environmental change in uplands. Abingdon (UK): Routledge.
22. Branson R. 2009. Naturalistic grazing and re-wilding in Britain: perspectives from the past and future directions. Br Wildl. 20(5 Special Supplement):1-63.
23. Bridgewater P, Higgs ES, Hobbs RJ, Jackson ST. 2011. Engaging with novel ecosystems. Front Ecol Environ. 9(8):423. doi:10.1890/1540-9295-9.8.
24. Britton AJ, Beale CM, Towers W, Hewison RJ. 2009. Biodiversity gains and losses: evidence for homogenisation of Scottish alpine vegetation. Biol Conserv. 142(8):1728-1739. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2009.03.010.
25. Brncic TM, Willis KJ, Harris DJ, Washington R. 2007. Culture or climate? The relative influences of past processes on the composition of the lowland Congo rainforest. Philos Trans R Soc B. 362(1478):243-251. doi:10.1098/rstb. 2006. 1984.
26. Bullock JM, Aronson J, Newton AC, Pywell RF, Rey- Benayas JM. 2011. Restoration of ecosystem services and biodiversity: conflicts and opportunities. Trends Ecol Evol. 26(10):541-549. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2011.06.011.
27. Burnett MR, August PV, Brown JH, Killingbeck KT. 1998. The influence of geomorphological heterogeneity on biodiversity I. A patch-scale perspective. Conserv Biol. 12(2): 363-370.
28. Carpenter SR, DeFries R, Dietz T, Mooney HA, Polasky S, Reid WV, Scholes RJ. 2006. Millennium ecosystem assessment: research needs. Science. 314(5797):257-258. doi: 10.1126/ science.1131946.
29. Carwardine J, Klein CJ,Wilson KA, Pressey RL, Possingham HP. 2009. Hitting the target and missing the point: target-based conservation planning in context. Conserv Lett. 2(1):3-10. doi:10.1111/j.1755-263X.2008.00042.x.
30. Coffey EED, Froyd CA, Willis KJ. 2011. When is an invasive not an invasive? Macrofossil evidence of doubtful native plant species in the Galápagos Islands. Ecology. 92(4): 805-812.
31. Collins SL, Carpenter SR, Swinton SM, Orenstein DE, Childers DL, Gragson TL, Grimm NB, Grove JM, Harlan SL, Kaye JP, et al. 2011. An integrated conceptual framework for long-term social-ecological research. Front Ecol Environ. 9(6):351-357. doi:10.1890/100068.
32. Connell JH. 1978. Diversity in tropical rain forests and coral reefs. Science. 199(4335):1301-1310.
33. Cooke IR, Queenborough SA, Mattison EHA, Bailey AP, Sandars DL, Graves AR, Morris J, Atkinson PW, Trawcik P, Freckleton RP, et al. 2009. Integrating socio-economics and ecology: a taxonomy of quantitative methods and a review of their use in agro-ecology. J Appl Ecol. 46(2):269-277. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664. 2009.01615.x.
34. Cyr D, Gauthier S, Bergeron Y, Carcaillet C. 2009. Forest management is driving the eastern North American boreal forest outside its natural range of variability. Front Ecol Environ. 7(10):519-524. doi:10.1890/080088.
35. Dambrine E, Dupouey JL, Laüt L, Humbert L. 2007. Present biodiversity patterns in France related to former Roman agriculture. Ecology. 88(6):1430-1438.
36. Davies A. 2007. Upland agriculture and environmental risk: a new model of upland land-use based on high spatialresolution palynological data from West Affric, NW Scotland. J Archaeol Sci. 34(12):2053-5063. doi:10.1016/ j.jas.2007.02.003.
37. Davies A. 2009. Review of the historical environmental changes in the UK uplands relevant to management and policy. Stirling (UK): University of Stirling.
38. Davies A. 2010. Palaeoecology, management, and restoration in the Scottish Highlands. In: Hall M, editor. Restoration and history: the search for a usable environmental past. Abingdon (UK): Routledge. p. 74-85.
39. Davies A. 2011. Long-term approaches to native woodland restoration: palaeoecological and stakeholder perspectives on Atlantic forests of Northern Europe. For Ecol Manage. 261(3):751-763. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2010.12.006.
40. Davies A, Bunting MJ. 2010. Applications of palaeoecology in conservation. Open Ecol J. 3(Special issue 1):54-67. doi:10.2174/ 1874213001003020054.
41. Davis MB. 1981. Outbreaks of forest pathogens in quaternary history. In: Bharadwaj DC, Mittre V, Maheshwari HK, editors. Proceedings of the Fourth International Palynological Conference, 1976-1977. Lucknow (India): Birbal Sahni Insitute of Palaeobotany. p. 216-228.
42. Davis MB. 2000. Palynology after Y2K: understanding the source area of pollen in sediments. Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci. 28:1-18.
43. Dawson TP, Jackson ST, House JI, Prentice IC, Mace GM. 2011. Beyond predictions: biodiversity conservation in a changing climate. Science. 332(6025):53-58. doi:10.1126/ science.1200303.
44. Dearing J. 2008. Landscape change and resilience theory: a palaeoenvironmental assessment from Yunnan, SW China. Holocene. 18(1):117-127. doi:10.1177/0959683607085601.
45. Dearing JA, Braimoh AK, Reenberg A, Turner BL, van der Leeuw S. 2010. Complex land systems: the need for long time perspectives to assess their future. Ecol Society. 15(4):21.
46. Dearing J, Dotterweich M, Foster T, Newman L, von Gunten L, editors. 2011. Integrative paleoscience for sustainable management. Pages News 19(2):41-92.
47. Delcourt HR, Delcourt PA. 1991. Quaternary ecology. A paleoecological perspective. London (UK): Chapman & Hall.
48. Dengler J, Jansen F, Glöcker F, Peet RK, De Cáceres M, Chytrý M, Ewald J, Oldeland J, Lopez-Gonzalez G, Finckh M, et al. 2011. The Global Index of Vegetation-Plot Databases (GIVD): a new resource for vegetation science. J Veg Sci. 22(4):582-597. doi:10.1111/j.1654-1103.2011. 01265.x.
49. Dietl GP, Flessa KW, editors. 2009. Conservation paleobiology: using the past to manage for the future. Boulder (CO): The Paleontological Society Papers.
50. Dietl GP, Flessa KW. 2011. Conservation paleobiology: putting the dead to work. Trends Ecol Evol. 26(1):30-37. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2010.09.010.
51. Dolan RW, Moore ME, Stephens JD. 2011. Documenting effects of urbanization on flora using herbarium records. J Ecol. 99(4):1055-1062. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2011.01820.x.
52. Dolman P, Sutherland W. 1991. Historical clues to conservation. New Scientist. 129(1751):40-43.
53. Dudley N. 2011. Authenticity in nature: making choices about the naturalness of ecosystems. London (UK): Earthscan.
54. Dupouey JL, Dambrine E, Lafite JD,Moares C. 2002. Irreversible impact of past land use on forest soils and biodiversity. Ecology. 83(11):2978-2984.
55. Edmonds M. 2005. The pleasures and pitfalls of written records. In: Egan D and Howell EA, editors. The historical ecology handbook. Washington (DC): Island Press. p. 73-99.
56. Edwards ME. 1986. Disturbance histories of four Snowdonian woodlands and their relation to Atlantic bryophyte distributions. Biol Conserv. 37(4):301-320. doi:10.1016/0006- 3207(86)90075-3.
57. Egan D, Howell EA, editors. 2005. The historical ecology handbook. Washington (DC): Island Press.
58. Ellison K. 2007. Here there be dragons. Front Ecol Environ. 5(9):512.
59. Emanuelsson U. 2009. The rural landscapes of Europe: how man has shaped European nature. Stockholm (Sweden): The Swedish Research Council Formas.
60. Evans M. 2009. Natural changes in upland landscapes. In: Bonn A, Allott T, Hubacek K, Stewart JR, editors. Drivers of environmental change in uplands. Abingdon (UK): Routledge. p. 13-33.
61. Flessa KW, Jackson ST. 2005. The geological record of ecological dynamics: understanding the biotic effects of future environmental change. Washington (DC): National Research Council of the National Academies.
62. Fox D. 2007. Back to the no-analog future? Science. 316(5826):823-825. doi:10.1126/science.316.5826.823.
63. Froyd CA, Willis KJ. 2008. Emerging issues in biodiversity and conservation management: the need for a palaeoecological perspective. Quat Sci Rev. 27(17-18):1723-1732. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2008.06.006.
64. Fuller JL, Foster DR, McLachlan JS, Drake N. 1998. Impact of human activity on regional forest composition and dynamics in central New England. Ecosystems. 1(1):76-95. doi:10.1007/s100219900007.
65. Gill JL, Williams JW, Jackson ST, Lininger KB, Robinson GS. 2009. Pleistocene megafaunal collapse, novel plant communities, and enhanced fire regimes in North America. Science. 326(5956):1100-1103. doi:10.1126/science. 1179504.
66. Gillson L. 2009. Landscapes in time and space. Landscape Ecol. 24(2):149-155. doi:10.1007/s10980-008-9315-7.
67. Gillson L, Duffin KI. 2007. Thresholds of potential concern as benchmarks in the management of African savannahs. Philos Trans R Soc B. 362(1478):309-319. doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1988.
68. Gillson L, Willis KJ. 2004. 'As Earth's testimonies tell': wilderness conservation in a changing world. Ecol Lett. 7(10):990-998.
69. Groffman PM, Baron JS, Blett T, Gold AJ, Goodman I, Gunderson LH, Levinson BM, Palmer MA, Paerl HW, Peterson GD, et al. 2006. Ecological thresholds: the key to successful environmental management or an important concept with no practical application? Ecosystems. 9(1):1-13. doi:10.1007/s10021-003-0142-z.
70. Gunderson LH, Allen CR, Holling CS, editors. 2010. Foundations of ecological resilience. Washington (DC): Island Press.
71. Gunderson LH, Holling CS, editors. 2001. Panarchy: understanding transformation in human and natural systems. Washington (DC): Island Press.
72. Gunderson LH, Pritchard L. 2002. Resilience and the behaviour of large-scale systems. Washington (DC): Island Press.
73. Gustavsson E, Lennatsson T, Emanuelsson M. 2007. Land use more than 200 years ago explains current grassland plant diversity in a Swedish agricultural landscape. Biol Conserv. 138(1-2):47-59. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2007.04.004.
74. Hall M, editor 2010. Restoration and history: the search for a usable environmental past. Abingdon (UK): Routledge.
75. Hanley N, Davies A, Angelopoulos K, Hamilton A, Ross A, Tinch D, Watson F. 2008. Economic determinants of biodiversity change over a 400-year period in the Scottish uplands. J Appl Ecol. 45(6):1557-1565. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664. 2008.01570.x.
76. Hanley N, Ready R, Colombo S,Watson F, Stewart M, Bergmann EA. 2009a. The impacts of knowledge of the past on preferences for future landscape change. J Environ Manage. 90(3):1404-1412. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2008.08.008.
77. Hanley N, Tinch D, Angelopoulos K, Davies A, Barbier EB, Watson F. 2009b. What drives long-run biodiversity change? New insights from combining economics, palaeoecology and environmental history. J Environ Economics Manage. 57(1):5-20. doi:10.1016/j.jeem.2008.03.005.
78. Heiri C, Bugmann H, Tinner W, Heiri O, Lischke H. 2006. A model-based reconstruction of Holocene treeline dynamics in the Central Swiss Alps. J Ecol. 94(1):206-216. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2005.01072.x.
79. Hobbs RJ. 2009. Woodland restoration in Scotland: ecology, history, culture, economics, politics and change. J Environ Manage. 90(9):2857-2865. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2007. 10.014.
80. Hobbs RJ, Arico S, Aronson J, Baron JS, Bridgewater P, Cramer VA, Epstein PR, Ewel JJ, Klink CA, Lugo AE, et al. 2006. Novel ecosystems: theoretical and management aspects of the new ecological world order. Glob Ecol Biogeogr. 15(1):1-7. doi:10.1111/j.1466-822x.2006.00212.x.
81. Hobbs RJ, Higgs ES, Harris JA. 2009. Novel ecosystems: implications for conservation and restoration. Trends Ecol Evol. 24(11):599-605. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2009.05.012.
82. Hoffmann H, Ulmi E, Bisang I, Müller N, Küchler M, Schnyder N, Schubiger C. 2007. Retrospective assessment of frequency changes in Swiss bryophytes over the last two centuries. Lindbergia. 32(1):18-32.
83. Hole DG, Huntley B, Arinaitwe J, Stuart HMB, Collingham YC, Fishpool LDC, Pain DJ, Willis SG. 2011. Toward a management framework for networks of protected areas in the face of climate change. Conserv Biol. 25(2):305-315. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2010.01633.x.
84. Holt K, Allen G, Hodgson R, Marsland S, Flenley J. 2011. Progress towards an automated trainable pollen location and classifier system for use in the palynology laboratory. Rev Palaeobot Palynol. 167(3-4):175-183. doi:10.1016/j.revpalbo.2011.08.006.
85. Hotchkiss SC, Calcote R, Lynch EA. 2007. Response of vegetation and fire to Little Ice Age climate change: regional continuity and landscape heterogeneity. Landscape Ecol. 22(Supplement 1):25-41. doi:10.1007/s10980-007- 9133-3.
86. Jackson ST. 1997. Documenting natural and human-caused plant invasions using paleoecological methods. In: Luken JO, Thieret JW, editors. Assessment and management of plant invasions. Berlin (Germany): Springer-Verlag. p. 37-55.
87. Jackson ST. 2001. Finding your way back home, or at least learning how it looked. Divers Distrib. 7(6):301-305.
88. Jackson ST. 2006. Vegetation, environment, and time: the origination and termination of ecosystems. J Veg Sci. 17(5):549-557. doi:10.1111/j.1654-1103. 2006.tb02478.x.
89. Jackson ST. 2007. Looking forward from the past: history, ecology, and conservation. Front Ecol Environ. 5(9):455.
90. Jackson ST, Gray ST, Shuman B. 2009. Paleoecology and resource management in a dynamic landscape: case studies from the rocky mountain headwaters. In: Dietl GP, Flessa KW, editors. Conservation paleobiology using the past to manage for the future. Boulder (CO): The Paleontological Society Papers. p. 61-80.
91. Jackson ST, Hobbs RJ. 2009. Ecological restoration in the light of ecological history. Science. 325(5940):567-569. doi:10.1126/science.1172977.
92. Jackson ST, Sax DF. 2009. Balancing biodiversity in a changing environment: extinction debt, immigration credit and species turnover. Trends Ecol Evol. 25(3):153-160. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2009.10.001.
93. Jackson ST, Williams JW. 2004. Modern analogs in quaternary paleoecology: here today, gone yesterday, gone tomorrow? Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci. 32:495-537. doi:10.1146/annurev.earth.32.101802.120435.
94. Jansen E, Overpeck J, Briffa KR, Duplessy J-C, Joos F, Masson-Delmotte V, Olago D, Otto-Bliesner B, Peltier WR, Rahmstorf S, et al. 2007. Palaeoclimate. In: Solomon S, Qin D, Manning M, Chen Z, Marquis M, Averyt KB, Tingnor M, Miller HL, editors. Climate change 2007: the physical science basis contribution to working group I to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge (UK): Cambridge University Press. p. 433-497.
95. Johnson KG, Brooks SJ, Fenberg PB, Glover AG, James KE, Lister AM, Michel E, Spencer M, Todd JA, Valsami-Jones E, et al. 2011. Climate change and biosphere response: unlocking the collections vault. BioScience. 61(2):147-153. doi:10.1525/bio.2011.61.2.10.
96. Kapfer J. 2011. Last-century vegetational changes in northern Europe Bergen. Bergen (Norway): University of Bergen.
97. Keith SA, Newton AC, Herbert RJH, Morecroft MD, Bealey CE. 2009. Non-analogous community formation in response to climate change. J Nat Conserv. 17(4):228-235. doi:10.1016/j.jnc.2009.04.003.
98. Kipfmueller KF, Swetnam TW. 2005. Using dendrochronology to reconstruct the history of forest and woodland ecosystems. In: Egan D, Howell EA, editors. The historical ecology handbook. Washington (DC): Island Press. p. 199-228.
99. Klein C, Wilson KA, Watts ME, Stein J, Berry S, Carwardine J, Smith MS, Mackey B, Possingham HP. 2009. Incorporating ecological and evolutionary processes into continentalscale conservation planning. Ecol Appl. 19(1):206-217. doi:10.1890/07-1684.1.
100. KoernerW, Dupouey JL, Dambrine E, Benoit M. 1997. Influence of past land use on the vegetation and soils of present day forest in the Vosges Mountains, France. J Ecol. 85(3): 351-358.
101. Kricher J. 2009. The balance of nature: ecology's enduring myth. Princeton (NJ): Princeton University Press.
102. Leopold AS. [cited 1963]. Wildlife management of the national parks: the Leopold report [Internet]. The National Park Service, US Department of the Interior. [cited 2012 Mar 1]. Available from: http://www.nps.gov/history/ history/online-books/leopold/leopold.htm.
103. Lotter AF, Birks HJB. 2003. The Holocene palaeolimnology of Sägistalsee and its environmental history: a synthesis. J Paleolimnol. 30(3):333-342.
104. Lovejoy TE. 2007. Paleoecology and the path ahead. Front Ecol Environ. 5(9):456.
105. Lovejoy TE. 2009. Managing for the future: the role of scientists. In: Dietl GP, Flessa KW, editors. Conservation paleobiology: using the past to manage for the future. Boulder (CO): The Paleontological Society Papers. p. 283-285.
106. Lynch EA. 1998. Origin of a park-forest vegetation mosaic in the Wind River Range, Wyoming. Ecology. 79(4):1320-1338.
107. Mace GM, Balmford A, Ginsberg JR, editors. 1998. Conservation in a changing world. Cambridge (UK): Cambridge University Press.
108. Millar CI, Woolfenden W. 1999. The role of climate change in interpreting historic variability. Ecol Appl. 9(4):1207-1216. doi:10.1890/1051-0761(1999) 009[1207:TROCCI]2.0.CO;2.
109. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. 2005. Ecosystems and human well-being: synthesis. Washington (DC): Island Press.
110. Mitchell FJG. 2005. How open were European primeval forests? Hypothesis testing using palaeoecological data. J Ecol. 93(1):168-177.
111. Myers N. 1990. The biodiversity challenge: expanded hotspots analysis. Environmentalist. 10(4):243-256. doi:10.1007/BF02239720.
112. Nichols WF, Killingbeck KT, August PV. 1998. The influence of geomorphological heterogeneity on biodiversity II. A landscape perspective. Conserv Biol. 12(2):371-379.
113. Odgaard BV. 2007. Reconstructing past biodiversity development. In: Elias SA, editor. Encyclopedia of quaternary science. Philadelphia (PA): Elsevier. p. 2508-2514.
114. Oldfield F. 1969. Pollen analysis and history of land use. Advancement Sci. 25:298-311.
115. Oldfield F. 1970. The ecological history of Blelham Bog National Nature Reserve. In: Walker D, West RG, editors. Studies in the vegetational history of the British Isles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 141-157.
116. Paciorek CJ, McLachlan JS. 2009. Mapping ancient forests: Bayesian inference for spatio-temporal trends in forest composition using the fossil pollen proxy record. J Am Stat Assoc. 104(486):608-622. doi:10.1198/jasa.2009. 0026.
117. Palmer MA, Falk DA, Zedler JB. 2006. Ecological theory and restoration ecology. In: Falk DA, Palmer MA, Zedler JB, editors. Foundations of restoration ecology. Washington (DC): Island Press. p. 1-10.
118. Pärtel M, Helm A, Reitalu T, Liira J, Zobel M. 2007. Grassland diversity related to Late Iron Age human population density. J Ecol. 95(3):574-582. doi:10.1111/j.1365- 2745.2007.01230.x.
119. Peglar SM. 1993. The development of the cultural landscape around Diss Mere, Norfolk, UK, during the past 7000 years. Rev Palaeobot Palynol. 76(1):1-47.
120. Peglar SM, Birks HJB. 1993. The mid-Holocene Ulmus fall at Diss Mere, South-east England: disease and human impact? Veg Hist Archaeobot. 2(2):61-68. doi:10.1007/BF00202183.
121. Perrings C, Naeem S, Ahrestani FS, Bunker DE, Burkill P, Canziani G, Elmqvist T, Fuhrman JA, Laksic FM, Kawabata Z, et al. 2011. Ecosystem services, targets, and indicators for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. Front Ecol Environ. 9(9):512-520. doi:10.1890/100212.
122. Pigott CD, Walters SM. 1977. The scientific basis of practical conservation: aims and methods of conservation. Proc R Soc Lond B. 197(1126):59-68. doi:10.1098/rspb.1977.0056.
123. Pimm SL. 1991. The balance of nature? Ecological issues in the conservation of species and communities. Chicago (IL): University of Chicago Press.
124. Ratcliffe DA, editor. 1977a. A nature conservation review, Volumes 1 and 2. Cambridge (UK): Cambridge University Press.
125. Ratcliffe DA. 1977b. Nature conservation: aims, methods and achievements. Proc R Soc Lond Ser B. 197(1126):11-29. doi:10.1098/rspb.1977.0054.
126. Ratcliffe DA. 1986. Selection of important areas for wildlife conservation in Great Britain: the Nature Conservancy Council's approach. In: Usher MB, editor. Wildlife conservation evaluation. London (UK): Chapman & Hall. p. 135-159.
127. Reitalu T, Johansson LJ, Sykes MT, Hall K, Prentice HC. 2010. History matters: village distances, grazing and grassland species diversity. J Appl Ecol. 47(6):1216-1224. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2010.01875.x.
128. Rull V. 2010. Ecology and palaeoecology: two approaches, one objective. Open Ecol J. 3(Special issue 1):1-5.
129. Rull V, Vegas-Vilarrúbia T. 2011. What is long-term ecology? Trends Ecol Evol. 26(1):3-4. doi:10.1016/j.tree. 2010.10.002.
130. Seastedt TR, Hobbs RJ, Suding KN. 2008. Management of novel ecosystems: are novel approaches required? Front Ecol Environ. 6(10):547-553. doi:10.1890/070046.
131. Seddon AWR, Froyd CA, Leng MJ, Milne GA, Willis KJ. 2011. Ecosystem resilience and threshold response in the Galápagos coastal zone. PLoS One. 6(7):e22376. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0022376.
132. Settle J, Penev L, Georgiev T, Grabaum R, Grobelnik V, Hammen V, Klotz S, Kotarac M, Kühn I. 2010. Atlas of biodiversity risk. Sofia - Moscow (Russia): Pensoft.
133. Smith AG, Cloutman EW. 1988. Reconstruction of Holocene vegetation history in three dimensions at Waun-Fignen-Felen, an upland site in South Wales. Philos Trans R Soc B. 322(1209):159-219. doi:10.1098/rstb.1988.0124.
134. Smol JP. 2008. Pollution of lakes and rivers: a paleoenvironmental perspective. 2nd ed. Oxford (UK): Blackwell.
135. Smol JP. 2009. Conservation biology and environmental change: a paleolimnological perspective. In: Dietl GP, Flessa KW, editors. Conservation paleobiology: using the past to manage for the future Boulder (CO): The Paleontological Society Papers. p. 25-37.
136. Spangenberg JH. 2007. Integrated scenarios for assessing biodiversity risks. Sustain Dev. 15(6):343-356. doi:10.1002/ sd.320.
137. Stevenson AC, Jones VJ, Battarbee RW. 1990. The cause of peat erosion: a palaeolimnological approach. New Phytol. 114(4):727-735.
138. Stevenson AC, Thompson DBA. 1993. Long-term changes in the extent of heather moorland in upland Britain and Ireland: palaeoecological evidence for the importance of grazing. Holocene. 3(1):70-76. doi:10.1177/095968369300300108.
139. Sugita S. 1994. Pollen representation of vegetation in quaternary sediments: theory and method in patchy vegetation. J Ecol. 82:881-897.
140. Sugita S. 2007a. Theory of quantitative reconstruction of vegetation I: pollen from large sites reveals regional vegetation composition. Holocene. 17(2):229-241. doi:10.1177/ 0959683607075837.
141. Sugita S. 2007b. Theory of quantitative reconstruction of vegetation II: all you need is love. Holocene. 17(2):243-257. doi:10.1177/0959683607075838.
142. Sutherland WJ, editor. 1998. Conservation science and action. Oxford (UK): Blackwell Science.
143. Sutherland WJ. 2006. Predicting the ecological consequences of environmental change: a review of the methods. J Appl Ecol. 43(4):599-616. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2006.01182.x.
144. Sutherland WJ, Adams WM, Aronson RB, Aveling R, Blackburn TM, Broad S, Ceballos G, Côté IM, Cowling RM, Da Fonseca GAB, et al. 2009. One hundred questions of importance to the conservation of global biological diversity. Conserv Biol. 23(3):557-567. doi:10.1111/j.1523- 1739.2009.01212.x.
145. Sutherland WJ, Albon SD, Allison H, Armstrong-Brown A, Bailey MJ, Brereton T, Boyd IL, Carey P, Edwards J, Gill M, et al. 2010. The identification of priority policy options for UK nature conservation. J Appl Ecol. 47(5):955-965. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2010.01863.x.
146. Sutherland WJ, Armstrong-Brown A, Armsworth PR, Brereton T, Brickland J, Campbell CD, Chamberlain DE, Cooke AI, Dulvy NK, Dusic NR, et al. 2006. The identification of 100 ecological questions of high policy relevance in the UK. J Appl Ecol. 43(4):614-627. doi:10.1111/j.1365- 2664.2006.01188.x.
147. Sutherland WJ, Pullin AS, Dolman PM, Knight TM. 2004. The need for evidence-based conservation. Trends Ecol Evol. 19(6):305-308. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2004.03.018.
148. Sutherland WJ, Woodroof HJ. 2009. The need for environmental horizon scanning. Trends Ecol Evol. 24(10):523-527. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2009.04.008.
149. Tallis JH. 1964a. Studies on Southern Pennine peats II: the pattern of erosion. J Ecol. 52(2):333-344.
150. Tallis JH. 1964b. Studies on Southern Pennine peats III: the behaviour of Sphagnum. J Ecol. 52(2):345-353.
151. Tallis JH. 1965. Studies on Southern Pennine peats IV: evidence of recent erosion. J Ecol. 53(2):509-520.
152. The Management Group. 1990. Main conclusions of SWAP research programme. In: Mason BJ, editor. The surface waters acidification programme. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 509-515.
153. van Leeuwen JFN, Froyd CA, van der Knaap WO, Coffey EED, Tye A, Willis KJ. 2008. Fossil pollen as a guide to conservation in the Galápagos. Science. 322(5905):1306. doi:10.1126/science.1163454.
154. Vegas-Vilarrúbia T, Rull V, Montoya E, Safont E. 2011. Quaternary palaeoecology and nature conservation: a general review with examples from the neotropics. Quat Sci Rev. 30(9-10):2361-2388. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2011.02. 006.
155. Vera F. 2010. The shifting baseline syndrome in restoration ecology. In: Hall M, editor. Restoration and history: the search for a usable environmental past. Abingdon (UK): Routledge. p. 98-110.
156. Virah-Sawmy M, Bonsall MB, Willis KJ. 2009a. 'Tales of Symphonia': extinction dynamics in response to past climate change in Madagascan rainforests. Biol Lett. 5(6):821-825. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2009.0428.
157. Virah-Sawmy M, Gillson L, Willis KJ. 2009b. How does spatial heterogeneity influence resilience to climatic change? Ecological dynamics in southeast Madagascar. Ecol Monog. 79(4):557-574.
158. Virah-SawmyM,Willis KJ, Gillson L. 2009c. Threshold response of Madagascar's littoral forest to sea-level rise. Glob Ecol Biogeogr. 18(1):98-110. doi:10.1111/j.1466-8238.2008.00429.x.
159. Walker B, Salt D. 2006. Resilience thinking. Washington (DC): Island Press.
160. Whitehouse NJ. 2010. Conservation lessons from the Holocene record in "natural" and "cultural" landscapes. In: Hall M, editor. Restoration and history: the search for a usable environmental past. Abingdon (UK): Routledge. p. 87-97.
161. Whittaker RH. 1977. Evolutions of species diversity in land communities. Evol Biol. 10:1-67.
162. Williams JW, Jackson ST. 2007. Novel climates, no-analog communities, and ecological surprises. Front Ecol Environ. 5(9):475-482. doi:10.1890/070037.
163. Williams JW, Jackson ST, Kutzbach JE. 2007. Projected distributions of novel and disappearing climates by 2100 AD. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 104(14):2735-5742. doi:10.1073/pnas.0606292104.
164. Willis KJ, Bailey RM, Bhagwat SA, Birks HJB. 2010. Biodiversity baselines, thresholds, and resilience: testing predictions and assumptions using palaeoecological data. Trends Ecol Evol. 25(10):583-591. doi:10.1016/j.tree. 2010.07.006.
165. Willis KJ, Bhagwat SA. 2010. Questions of importance to the conservation of global biological diversity: answers from the past. Clim Past. 6:759-769. doi:10.5194/cp-6-759-2010.
166. Willis KJ, Birks HJB. 2006. What is natural? The need for a long-term perspective in biodiversity conservation. Science. 314(5803):1261-1265.
167. Willis KJ, Gillson L, Brncic TM. 2004. How "virgin" is virgin rainforest? Science. 304(5669):402-403.
168. Willis KJ, Gillson L, Brncic TM, Figueroa-Rangel BL. 2005. Providing baselines for biodiversity measurement. Trends Ecol Evol. 20(3):107-108. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2004. 12.00.
169. Willis KJ, Gillson L, Knapp S, editors. 2007a. Biodiversity hotspots through time: using the past to manage the future. Philos Trans R Soc B. 362(1478):167-333.
170. Willis KJ, Gillson L, Knapp S. 2007b. Biodiversity hotspots through time: an introduction. Philos Trans R Soc B. 362(1478):169-174. doi:10.1098/rstb. 2006.1976.
171. Yallop AR, Clutterbuck B, Thacker JL. 2009. Burning issues: the history and ecology of managed fires in the uplands. In: Bonn A, Allott T, Hubacek K, Stewart JR, editors. Drivers of environmental change in uplands. Abingdon: Routledge. p. 171-185.
172. Zier JL, Baker WL. 2006. A century of vegetation change in the San Juan Mountains, Colorado: an analysis using repeat photography. For Ecol Manage. 228(1-3):251-262.doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2006.02.049.