Neonatal calf infection with respiratory syncytial virus: Drawing parallels to the disease in human infants

Viruses

Volumn 4, Issue 12, 2012, Pages 3731-3753

  Sacco, Randy E ^a   McGill, Jodi L ^a   Palmer, Mitchell V ^a   Lippolis, John D ^a   Reinhardt, Timothy A ^a   Nonnecke, Brian J ^a  

^a NATIONAL ANIMAL DISEASE CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Adaptive immunity; Bovine respiratory syncytial virus; Human respiratory syncytial virus; Innate immunity; Vaccine

Indexed keywords

CALCIFEDIOL; INTERLEUKIN 12P40; INTERLEUKIN 8; RESPIRATORY SYNCYTIAL VIRUS VACCINE; VIRUS PROTEIN; VITAMIN D;

ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY; AGE; BRONCHIOLITIS; BRONCHUS; CATTLE DISEASE; CELL DEATH; CELL INFILTRATION; CLINICAL FEATURE; DAIRY CATTLE; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; EPITHELIUM CELL; HUMAN; IN VITRO STUDY; INFANT; INNATE IMMUNITY; MILK; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; NEUTROPHIL; NEWBORN; NEWBORN INFECTION; NONHUMAN; RESPIRATORY SYNCYTIAL PNEUMOVIRUS; RESPIRATORY SYNCYTIAL VIRUS INFECTION; REVIEW; UPREGULATION; VIRUS PNEUMONIA;

ANIMALS; ANIMALS, NEWBORN; BRONCHIOLES; CATTLE; CATTLE DISEASES; CYTOKINES; HUMANS; INFANT; NEUTROPHILS; RESPIRATORY MUCOSA; RESPIRATORY SYNCYTIAL VIRUS INFECTIONS; RESPIRATORY SYNCYTIAL VIRUSES; VITAMIN D;

BOS; BOVINAE; BOVINE RESPIRATORY SYNCYTIAL VIRUS; HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYNCYTIAL VIRUS; RESPIRATORY SYNCYTIAL VIRUS; RICE STRIPE VIRUS; RODENTIA;

EID: 84871888835     PISSN: 19994915     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/v4123731     Document Type: Review

References (139)

1. Nair, H.; Nokes, D.J.; Gessner, B.D.; Dherani, M.; Madhi, S.A.; Singleton, R.J.; O'Brien, K.L.; Roca, A.; Wright, P.F.; Bruce, N.; et al. Global burden of acute lower respiratory infections due to respiratory syncytial virus in young children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 2010, 375, 1545-1555.
2. Silvestri, M.; Sabatini, F.; Defilippi, A.C.; Rossi, G.A. The wheezy infant--immunological and molecular considerations. Paediatr. Respir. Rev. 2004, 5 Suppl A, S81-87.
3. Stein, R.T.; Sherrill, D.; Morgan, W.J.; Holberg, C.J.; Halonen, M.; Taussig, L.M.; Wright, A.L.; Martinez, F.D. Respiratory syncytial virus in early life and risk of wheeze and allergy by age 13 years. Lancet 1999, 354, 541-545.
4. Falsey, A.R.; Hennessey, P.A.; Formica, M.A.; Cox, C.; Walsh, E.E. Respiratory syncytial virus infection in elderly and high-risk adults. N. Engl. J. Med. 2005, 352, 1749-1759.
5. Falsey, A.R.; Walsh, E.E. Respiratory syncytial virus infection in adults. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2000, 13, 371-384.
6. Raboni, S.M.; Nogueira, M.B.; Tsuchiya, L.R.; Takahashi, G.A.; Pereira, L.A.; Pasquini, R.; Siqueira, M.M. Respiratory tract viral infections in bone marrow transplant patients. Transplantation 2003, 76, 142-146.
7. Gershwin, L.J. Bovine respiratory syncytial virus infection: immunopathogenic mechanisms. Anim. Health Res. Rev. 2007, 8, 207-213.
8. Blount, R.E., Jr.; Morris, J.A.; Savage, R.E. Recovery of cytopathogenic agent from chimpanzees with coryza. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 1956, 92, 544-549.
9. Chanock, R.; Finberg, L. Recovery from infants with respiratory illness of a virus related to chimpanzee coryza agent (CCA). II. Epidemiologic aspects of infection in infants and young children. Am. J. Hyg. 1957, 66, 291-300.
10. Chanock, R.; Roizman, B.; Myers, R. Recovery from infants with respiratory illness of a virus related to chimpanzee coryza agent (CCA). I. Isolation, properties and characterization. Am. J. Hyg. 1957, 66, 281-290.
11. Doggett, J.E.; Taylor-Robinson, D.; Gallop, R.G. A study of an inhibitor in bovine serum active against respiratory syncytial virus. Arch. Gesamte Virusforsch 1968, 23, 126-137.
12. Paccaud, M.F.; Jacquier, C. A respiratory syncytial virus of bovine origin. Arch. Gesamte Virusforsch 1970, 30, 327-342.
13. Jacobs, J.W.; Edington, N. Isolation of respiratory syncytial virus from cattle in Britain. Vet. Rec. 1971, 88, 694.
14. Inaba, Y.; Tanaka, Y.; Sato, K.; Ito, H.; Omori, T. Nomi virus, a virus isolated from an apparently new epizootic respiratory disease of cattle. Jpn. J. Microbiol. 1970, 14, 246-248.
15. Inaba, Y.; Tanaka, Y.; Omori, T.; Matumoto, M. Isolation of bovine respiratory syncytial virus. Jpn J. Exp. Med. 1970, 40, 473-474.
16. Glezen, W.P.; Taber, L.H.; Frank, A.L.; Kasel, J.A. Risk of primary infection and reinfection with respiratory syncytial virus. Am. J. Dis. Child. 1986, 140, 543-546.
17. Valarcher, J.F.; Schelcher, F.; Bourhy, H. Evolution of bovine respiratory syncytial virus. J. Virol. 2000, 74, 10714-10728.
18. Van der Poel, W.H.; Brand, A.; Kramps, J.A.; Van Oirschot, J.T. Respiratory syncytial virus infections in human beings and in cattle. J. Infect. 1994, 29, 215-228.
19. Anderson, L.J.; Hierholzer, J.C.; Tsou, C.; Hendry, R.M.; Fernie, B.F.; Stone, Y.; McIntosh, K. Antigenic characterization of respiratory syncytial virus strains with monoclonal antibodies. J. Infect. Dis. 1985, 151, 626-633.
20. Cristina, J.; Lopez, J.A.; Albo, C.; Garcia-Barreno, B.; Garcia, J.; Melero, J.A.; Portela, A. Analysis of genetic variability in human respiratory syncytial virus by the RNase A mismatch cleavage method: subtype divergence and heterogeneity. Virology 1990, 174, 126-134.
21. Furze, J.M.; Roberts, S.R.; Wertz, G.W.; Taylor, G. Antigenically distinct G glycoproteins of BRSV strains share a high degree of genetic homogeneity. Virology 1997, 231, 48-58.
22. Deplanche, M.; Lemaire, M.; Mirandette, C.; Bonnet, M.; Schelcher, F.; Meyer, G. In vivo evidence for quasispecies distributions in the bovine respiratory syncytial virus genome. J. Gen. Virol. 2007, 88, 1260-1265.
23. McLellan, J.S.; Yang, Y.; Graham, B.S.; Kwong, P.D. Structure of respiratory syncytial virus fusion glycoprotein in the postfusion conformation reveals preservation of neutralizing epitopes. J. Virol. 2011, 85, 7788-7796.
24. Johnson, P.R.; Spriggs, M.K.; Olmsted, R.A.; Collins, P.L. The G glycoprotein of human respiratory syncytial viruses of subgroups A and B: extensive sequence divergence between antigenically related proteins. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1987, 84, 5625-5629.
25. Valarcher, J.F.; Schelcher, F.; Bourhy, H. Evolution of bovine respiratory syncytial virus. J. Virol. 2000, 74, 10714-10728.
26. Garcia, O.; Martin, M.; Dopazo, J.; Arbiza, J.; Frabasile, S.; Russi, J.; Hortal, M.; Perez-Brena, P.; Martinez, I.; Garcia-Barreno, B.; et al. Evolutionary pattern of human respiratory syncytial virus (subgroup A): cocirculating lineages and correlation of genetic and antigenic changes in the G glycoprotein. J. Virol. 1994, 68, 5448-5459.
27. Woelk, C.H.; Holmes, E.C. Variable immune-driven natural selection in the attachment (G) glycoprotein of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). J. Mol. Evol. 2001, 52, 182-192.
28. Prozzi, D.; Walravens, K.; Langedijk, J.P.; Daus, F.; Kramps, J.A.; Letesson, J.J. Antigenic and molecular analyses of the variability of bovine respiratory syncytial virus G glycoprotein. J. Gen. Virol. 1997, 78 (Pt 2), 359-366.
29. Fach, S.J.; Meyerholz, D.K.; Gallup, J.M.; Ackermann, M.R.; Lehmkuhl, H.D.; Sacco, R.E. Neonatal ovine pulmonary dendritic cells support bovine respiratory syncytial virus replication with enhanced interleukin (IL)-4 And IL-10 gene transcripts. Viral. Immunol. 2007, 20, 119-130.
30. Meyerholz, D.K.; Grubor, B.; Fach, S.J.; Sacco, R.E.; Lehmkuhl, H.D.; Gallup, J.M.; Ackermann, M.R. Reduced clearance of respiratory syncytial virus infection in a preterm lamb model. Microbes. Infect. 2004, 6, 1312-1319.
31. Sacco, R.E.; Nonnecke, B.J.; Palmer, M.V.; Waters, W.R.; Lippolis, J.D.; Reinhardt, T.A. Differential expression of cytokines in response to respiratory syncytial virus infection of calves with high or low circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D3. PLoS One 2012, 7, e33074.
32. Woolums, A.R.; Anderson, M.L.; Gunther, R.A.; Schelegle, E.S.; LaRochelle, D.R.; Singer, R.S.; Boyle, G.A.; Friebertshauser, K.E.; Gershwin, L.J. Evaluation of severe disease induced by aerosol inoculation of calves with bovine respiratory syncytial virus. Am J. Vet. Res. 1999, 60, 473-480.
33. Aherne, W.; Bird, T.; Court, S.D.; Gardner, P.S.; McQuillin, J. Pathological changes in virus infections of the lower respiratory tract in children. J. Clin. Pathol. 1970, 23, 7-18.
34. Bem, R.A.; Domachowske, J.B.; Rosenberg, H.F. Animal models of human respiratory syncytial virus disease. Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol. 2011, 301, L148-156.
35. Johnson, J.E.; Gonzales, R.A.; Olson, S.J.; Wright, P.F.; Graham, B.S. The histopathology of fatal untreated human respiratory syncytial virus infection. Mod. Pathol. 2007, 20, 108-119.
36. Bendelja, K.; Vojvoda, V.; Aberle, N.; Cepin-Bogovic, J.; Gagro, A.; Mlinaric-Galinovic, G.; Rabatic, S. Decreased Toll-like receptor 8 expression and lower TNF-alpha synthesis in infants with acute RSV infection. Respir. Res. 2010, 11, 143.
37. Zeng, R.; Cui, Y.; Hai, Y.; Liu, Y. Pattern recognition receptors for respiratory syncytial virus infection and design of vaccines. Virus Res. 2012, 167, 138-145.
38. Ning, S.; Pagano, J.S.; Barber, G.N. IRF7: activation, regulation, modification and function. Genes Immun. 2011, 12, 399-414.
39. Yang, H.; Lin, C.H.; Ma, G.; Baffi, M.O.; Wathelet, M.G. Interferon regulatory factor-7 synergizes with other transcription factors through multiple interactions with p300/CBP coactivators. J. Biol. Chem. 2003, 278, 15495-15504.
40. Bossert, B.; Conzelmann, K.K. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) nonstructural (NS) proteins as host range determinants: a chimeric bovine RSV with NS genes from human RSV is attenuated in interferon-competent bovine cells. J. Virol. 2002, 76, 4287-4293.
41. Schlender, J.; Bossert, B.; Buchholz, U.; Conzelmann, K.K. Bovine respiratory syncytial virus nonstructural proteins NS1 and NS2 cooperatively antagonize alpha/beta interferon-induced antiviral response. J. Virol. 2000, 74, 8234-8242.
42. Bossert, B.; Marozin, S.; Conzelmann, K.K. Nonstructural proteins NS1 and NS2 of bovine respiratory syncytial virus block activation of interferon regulatory factor 3. J. Virol. 2003, 77, 8661-8668.
43. Lo, M.S.; Brazas, R.M.; Holtzman, M.J. Respiratory syncytial virus nonstructural proteins NS1 and NS2 mediate inhibition of Stat2 expression and alpha/beta interferon responsiveness. J. Virol. 2005, 79, 9315-9319.
44. Liu, P.; Jamaluddin, M.; Li, K.; Garofalo, R.P.; Casola, A.; Brasier, A.R. Retinoic acid-inducible gene I mediates early antiviral response and Toll-like receptor 3 expression in respiratory syncytial virus-infected airway epithelial cells. J. Virol. 2007, 81, 1401-1411.
45. Ferrick, D.A.; King, D.P.; Jackson, K.A.; Braun, R.K.; Tam, S.; Hyde, D.M.; Beaman, B.L. Intraepithelial gamma delta T lymphocytes: sentinel cells at mucosal barriers. Springer Semin. Immunopathol. 2000, 22, 283-296.
46. Hayday, A.C. [gamma][delta] cells: a right time and a right place for a conserved third way of protection. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 2000, 18, 975-1026.
47. Hein, W.R.; Mackay, C.R. Prominence of gamma delta T cells in the ruminant immune system. Immunol. Today 1991, 12, 30-34.
48. Jutila, M.A.; Holderness, J.; Graff, J.C.; Hedges, J.F. Antigen-independent priming: a transitional response of bovine gammadelta T-cells to infection. Anim. Health Res. Rev. 2008, 9, 47-57.
49. De Weerd, W.; Twilhaar, W.N.; Kimpen, J.L. T cell subset analysis in peripheral blood of children with RSV bronchiolitis. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 1998, 30, 77-80.
50. Aoyagi, M.; Shimojo, N.; Sekine, K.; Nishimuta, T.; Kohno, Y. Respiratory syncytial virus infection suppresses IFN-gamma production of gammadelta T cells. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 2003, 131, 312-317.
51. Dodd, J.; Riffault, S.; Kodituwakku, J.S.; Hayday, A.C.; Openshaw, P.J. Pulmonary V gamma 4+ gamma delta T cells have proinflammatory and antiviral effects in viral lung disease. J. Immunol. 2009, 182, 1174-1181.
52. Taylor, G.; Thomas, L.H.; Wyld, S.G.; Furze, J.; Sopp, P.; Howard, C.J. Role of T-lymphocyte subsets in recovery from respiratory syncytial virus infection in calves. J. Virol. 1995, 69, 6658-6664.
53. Thomas, L.H.; Cook, R.S.; Howard, C.J.; Gaddum, R.M.; Taylor, G. Influence of selective T-lymphocyte depletion on the lung pathology of gnotobiotic calves and the distribution of different T-lymphocyte subsets following challenge with bovine respiratory syncytial virus. Res. Vet. Sci. 1996, 61, 38-44.
54. McGill, J.L.; Nonnecke, B.J.; Lippolis, J.D.; Reinhardt, T.A.; Sacco, R.E. Differential chemokine and cytokine production by neonatal bovine. d T cell subsets in response to viral toll-like receptor agonists and in vivo RSV infection. Immunology. Manuscript under review.
55. Meyer, G.; Deplanche, M.; Schelcher, F. Human and bovine respiratory syncytial virus vaccine research and development. Comp. Immunol. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 2008, 31, 191-225.
56. Bueno, S.M.; Gonzalez, P.A.; Pacheco, R.; Leiva, E.D.; Cautivo, K.M.; Tobar, H.E.; Mora, J.E.; Prado, C.E.; Zuniga, J.P.; Jimenez, J.; et al. Host immunity during RSV pathogenesis. Int. Immunopharmacol. 2008, 8, 1320-1329.
57. van Bleek, G.M.; Poelen, M.C.; van der Most, R.; Brugghe, H.F.; Timmermans, H.A.; Boog, C.J.; Hoogerhout, P.; Otten, H.G.; van Els, C.A. Identification of immunodominant epitopes derived from the respiratory syncytial virus fusion protein that are recognized by human CD4 T cells. J. Virol. 2003, 77, 980-988.
58. Cannon, M.J.; Openshaw, P.J.; Askonas, B.A. Cytotoxic T cells clear virus but augment lung pathology in mice infected with respiratory syncytial virus. J. Exp. Med. 1988, 168, 1163-1168.
59. Graham, B.S.; Bunton, L.A.; Wright, P.F.; Karzon, D.T. Role of T lymphocyte subsets in the pathogenesis of primary infection and rechallenge with respiratory syncytial virus in mice. J. Clin. Invest. 1991, 88, 1026-1033.
60. Graham, B.S.; Bunton, L.A.; Rowland, J.; Wright, P.F.; Karzon, D.T. Respiratory syncytial virus infection in anti-mu-treated mice. J. Virol. 1991, 65, 4936-4942.
61. Openshaw, P.J.; Tregoning, J.S. Immune responses and disease enhancement during respiratory syncytial virus infection. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2005, 18, 541-555.
62. Guerrero-Plata, A.; Casola, A.; Suarez, G.; Yu, X.; Spetch, L.; Peeples, M.E.; Garofalo, R.P. Differential response of dendritic cells to human metapneumovirus and respiratory syncytial virus. Am. J. Respir. Cell. Mol. Biol. 2006, 34, 320-329.
63. Bartz, H.; Turkel, O.; Hoffjan, S.; Rothoeft, T.; Gonschorek, A.; Schauer, U. Respiratory syncytial virus decreases the capacity of myeloid dendritic cells to induce interferon-gamma in naive T cells. Immunology 2003, 109, 49-57.
64. Boelen, A.; Kwakkel, J.; Barends, M.; de Rond, L.; Dormans, J.;Kimman, T. Effect of lack of Interleukin-4, Interleukin-12, Interleukin-18, or the Interferon-gamma receptor on virus replication, cytokine response, and lung pathology during respiratory syncytial virus infection in mice. J Med Virol 2002, 66, 552-560.
65. Hussell, T.; Baldwin, C.J.; O'Garra, A.; Openshaw, P.J. CD8+ T cells control Th2-driven pathology during pulmonary respiratory syncytial virus infection. Eur. J. Immunol. 1997, 27, 3341-3349.
66. Durbin, J.E.; Johnson, T.R.; Durbin, R.K.; Mertz, S.E.; Morotti, R.A.; Peebles, R.S.; Graham, B.S. The role of IFN in respiratory syncytial virus pathogenesis. J. Immunol. 2002, 168, 2944-2952.
67. Lindemans, C.A.; Kimpen, J.L.; Luijk, B.; Heidema, J.; Kanters, D.; van der Ent, C.K.; Koenderman, L. Systemic eosinophil response induced by respiratory syncytial virus. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 2006, 144, 409-417.
68. Kristjansson, S.; Bjarnarson, S.P.; Wennergren, G.; Palsdottir, A.H.; Arnadottir, T.; Haraldsson, A.; Jonsdottir, I. Respiratory syncytial virus and other respiratory viruses during the first 3 months of life promote a local TH2-like response. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2005, 116, 805-811.
69. van Benten, I.J.; van Drunen, C.M.; Koevoet, J.L.; Koopman, L.P.; Hop, W.C.; Osterhaus, A.D.; Neijens, H.J.; Fokkens, W.J. Reduced nasal IL-10 and enhanced TNFalpha responses during rhinovirus and RSV-induced upper respiratory tract infection in atopic and non-atopic infants. J. Med. Virol. 2005, 75, 348-357.
70. Miao, C.; Woolums, A.R.; Zarlenga, D.S.; Brown, C.C.; Brown, J.C., Jr.; Williams, S.M.; Scott, M.A. Effects of a single intranasal dose of modified-live bovine respiratory syncytial virus vaccine on cytokine messenger RNA expression following viral challenge in calves. Am. J. Vet. Res. 2004, 65, 725-733.
71. Stewart, R.S.; Gershwin, L.J. Role of IgE in the pathogenesis of bovine respiratory syncytial virus in sequential infections in vaccinated and nonvaccinated calves. Am. J. Vet. Res. 1989, 50, 349-355.
72. Stewart, R.S.; Gershwin, L.J. Detection of IgE antibodies to bovine respiratory syncytial virus. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. 1989, 20, 313-323.
73. Gershwin, L.J.; Gunther, R.A.; Anderson, M.L.; Woolums, A.R.; McArthur-Vaughan, K.; Randel, K.E.; Boyle, G.A.; Friebertshauser, K.E.; McInturff, P.S. Bovine respiratory syncytial virus-specific IgE is associated with interleukin-2 and-4, and interferon-gamma expression in pulmonary lymph of experimentally infected calves. Am. J. Vet. Res. 2000, 61, 291-298.
74. Sigurs, N.; Gustafsson, P.M.; Bjarnason, R.; Lundberg, F.; Schmidt, S.; Sigurbergsson, F.; Kjellman, B. Severe respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis in infancy and asthma and allergy at age 13. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2005, 171, 137-141.
75. Sigurs, N.; Bjarnason, R.; Sigurbergsson, F.; Kjellman, B.; Bjorksten, B. Asthma and immunoglobulin E antibodies after respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis: a prospective cohort study with matched controls. Pediatrics 1995, 95, 500-505.
76. Gershwin, L.J.; Gunther, R.A.; Hornof, W.J.; Larson, R.F. Effect of infection with bovine respiratory syncytial virus on pulmonary clearance of an inhaled antigen in calves. Am. J. Vet. Res. 2008, 69, 416-422.
77. Gershwin, L.J.; Anderson, M.L.; Wang, C.; Berghaus, L.J.; Kenny, T.P.; Gunther, R.A. Assessment of IgE response and cytokine gene expression in pulmonary efferent lymph collected after ovalbumin inhalation during experimental infection of calves with bovine respiratory syncytial virus. Am. J. Vet. Res. 2011, 72, 134-145.
78. Heidema, J.; Lukens, M.V.; van Maren, W.W.; van Dijk, M.E.; Otten, H.G.; van Vught, A.J.; van der Werff, D.B.; van Gestel, S.J.; Semple, M.G.; Smyth, R.L.; et al. CD8+ T cell responses in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and peripheral blood mononuclear cells of infants with severe primary respiratory syncytial virus infections. J. Immunol. 2007, 179, 8410-8417.
79. McInnes, E.; Sopp, P.; Howard, C.J.; Taylor, G. Phenotypic analysis of local cellular responses in calves infected with bovine respiratory syncytial virus. Immunology 1999, 96, 396-403.
80. Openshaw, P.J.; Anderson, K.; Wertz, G.W.; Askonas, B.A. The 22,000-kilodalton protein of respiratory syncytial virus is a major target for Kd-restricted cytotoxic T lymphocytes from mice primed by infection. J. Virol. 1990, 64, 1683-1689.
81. Cherrie, A.H.; Anderson, K.; Wertz, G.W.; Openshaw, P.J. Human cytotoxic T cells stimulated by antigen on dendritic cells recognize the N, SH, F, M, 22K, and 1b proteins of respiratory syncytial virus. J. Virol. 1992, 66, 2102-2110.
82. Bangham, C.R.; McMichael, A.J. Specific human cytotoxic T cells recognize B-cell lines persistently infected with respiratory syncytial virus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1986, 83, 9183-9187.
83. Gaddum, R.M.; Cook, R.S.; Furze, J.M.; Ellis, S.A.; Taylor, G. Recognition of bovine respiratory syncytial virus proteins by bovine CD8+ T lymphocytes. Immunology 2003, 108, 220-229.
84. Taylor, G.; Thomas, L.H.; Furze, J.M.; Cook, R.S.; Wyld, S.G.; Lerch, R.; Hardy, R.; Wertz, G.W. Recombinant vaccinia viruses expressing the F, G or N, but not the M2, protein of bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV) induce resistance to BRSV challenge in the calf and protect against the development of pneumonic lesions. J. Gen. Virol. 1997, 78 (Pt 12), 3195-3206.
85. Antonis, A.F.; Claassen, E.A.; Hensen, E.J.; de Groot, R.J.; de Groot-Mijnes, J.D.; Schrijver, R.S.; van der Most, R.G. Kinetics of antiviral CD8 T cell responses during primary and post-vaccination secondary bovine respiratory syncytial virus infection. Vaccine 2006, 24, 1551-1561.
86. Chang, J.; Braciale, T.J. Respiratory syncytial virus infection suppresses lung CD8+ T-cell effector activity and peripheral CD8+ T-cell memory in the respiratory tract. Nat. Med. 2002, 8, 54-60.
87. Chang, J.; Srikiatkhachorn, A.; Braciale, T.J. Visualization and characterization of respiratory syncytial virus F-specific CD8(+) T cells during experimental virus infection. J. Immunol. 2001, 167, 4254-4260.
88. Gaddum, R.M.; Cook, R.S.; Thomas, L.H.; Taylor, G. Primary cytotoxic T-cell responses to bovine respiratory syncytial virus in calves. Immunology 1996, 88, 421-427.
89. Woolums, A.R.; Gunther, R.A.; McArthur-Vaughan, K.; Anderson, M.L.; Omlor, A.; Boyle, G.A.; Friebertshauser, K.E.; McInturff, P.S.; Gershwin, L.J. Cytotoxic T lymphocyte activity and cytokine expression in calves vaccinated with formalin-inactivated bovine respiratory syncytial virus prior to challenge. Comp. Immunol. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 2004, 27, 57-74.
90. Piedra, P.A.; Jewell, A.M.; Cron, S.G.; Atmar, R.L.; Glezen, W.P. Correlates of immunity to respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) associated-hospitalization: establishment of minimum protective threshold levels of serum neutralizing antibodies. Vaccine 2003, 21, 3479-3482.
91. Stensballe, L.G.; Ravn, H.; Kristensen, K.; Meakins, T.; Aaby, P.; Simoes, E.A. Seasonal variation of maternally derived respiratory syncytial virus antibodies and association with infant hospitalizations for respiratory syncytial virus. J. Pediatr. 2009, 154, 296-298.
92. Stensballe, L.G.; Ravn, H.; Kristensen, K.; Agerskov, K.; Meakins, T.; Aaby, P.; Simoes, E.A. Respiratory syncytial virus neutralizing antibodies in cord blood, respiratory syncytial virus hospitalization, and recurrent wheeze. J. Allergy. Clin. Immunol. 2009, 123, 398-403.
93. Kimman, T.G.; Zimmer, G.M.; Westenbrink, F.; Mars, J.; van Leeuwen, E. Epidemiological study of bovine respiratory syncytial virus infections in calves: influence of maternal antibodies on the outcome of disease. Vet. Rec. 1988, 123, 104-109.
94. Crowe, J.E., Jr.; Williams, J.V. Immunology of viral respiratory tract infection in infancy. Paediatr Respir. Rev. 2003, 4, 112-119.
95. Kimman, T.G.; Westenbrink, F.; Schreuder, B.E.; Straver, P.J. Local and systemic antibody response to bovine respiratory syncytial virus infection and reinfection in calves with and without maternal antibodies. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1987, 25, 1097-1106.
96. Groothuis, J.R. The role of RSV neutralizing antibodies in the treatment and prevention of respiratory syncytial virus infection in high-risk children. Antiviral Res. 1994, 23, 1-10.
97. Connors, M.; Collins, P.L.; Firestone, C.Y.; Murphy, B.R. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) F, G, M2 (22K), and N proteins each induce resistance to RSV challenge, but resistance induced by M2 and N proteins is relatively short-lived. J. Virol. 1991, 65, 1634-1637.
98. Oshansky, C.M.; Zhang, W.; Moore, E.; Tripp, R.A. The host response and molecular pathogenesis associated with respiratory syncytial virus infection. Future Microbiol. 2009, 4, 279-297.
99. Melero, J.A.; Garcia-Barreno, B.; Martinez, I.; Pringle, C.R.; Cane, P.A. Antigenic structure, evolution and immunobiology of human respiratory syncytial virus attachment (G) protein. J. Gen. Virol. 1997, 78 (Pt 10), 2411-2418.
100. Bukreyev, A.; Yang, L.; Fricke, J.; Cheng, L.; Ward, J.M.; Murphy, B.R.; Collins, P.L. The secreted form of respiratory syncytial virus G glycoprotein helps the virus evade antibody-mediated restriction of replication by acting as an antigen decoy and through effects on Fc receptor-bearing leukocytes. J. Virol. 2008, 82, 12191-12204.
101. Graham, B.S. Biological challenges and technological opportunities for respiratory syncytial virus vaccine development. Immunol. Rev. 2011, 239, 149-166.
102. Mills, J.T.; Van Kirk, J.E.; Wright, P.F.; Chanock, R.M. Experimental respiratory syncytial virus infection of adults. Possible mechanisms of resistance to infection and illness. J. Immunol. 1971, 107, 123-130.
103. Prince, G.A.; Hemming, V.G.; Horswood, R.L.; Chanock, R.M. Immunoprophylaxis and immunotherapy of respiratory syncytial virus infection in the cotton rat. Virus Res. 1985, 3, 193-206.
104. Prince, G.A.; Horswood, R.L.; Chanock, R.M. Quantitative aspects of passive immunity to respiratory syncytial virus infection in infant cotton rats. J. Virol. 1985, 55, 517-520.
105. Singleton, R.; Etchart, N.; Hou, S.; Hyland, L. Inability to evoke a long-lasting protective immune response to respiratory syncytial virus infection in mice correlates with ineffective nasal antibody responses. J. Virol. 2003, 77, 11303-11311.
106. Singleton, R.; Dooley, L.; Bruden, D.; Raelson, S.; Butler, J.C. Impact of palivizumab prophylaxis on respiratory syncytial virus hospitalizations in high risk Alaska Native infants. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2003, 22, 540-545.
107. Malley, R.; DeVincenzo, J.; Ramilo, O.; Dennehy, P.H.; Meissner, H.C.; Gruber, W.C.; Sanchez, P.J.; Jafri, H.; Balsley, J.; Carlin, D.; et al. Reduction of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) in tracheal aspirates in intubated infants by use of humanized monoclonal antibody to RSV F protein. J. Infect. Dis. 1998, 178, 1555-1561.
108. Simoes, E.A.; Groothuis, J.R.; Carbonell-Estrany, X.; Rieger, C.H.; Mitchell, I.; Fredrick, L.M.; Kimpen, J.L. Palivizumab prophylaxis, respiratory syncytial virus, and subsequent recurrent wheezing. J. Pediatr. 2007, 151, 34-42, 42 e31.
109. Chin, J.; Magoffin, R.L.; Shearer, L.A.; Schieble, J.H.; Lennette, E.H. Field evaluation of a respiratory syncytial virus vaccine and a trivalent parainfluenza virus vaccine in a pediatric population. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1969, 89, 449-463.
110. Kapikian, A.Z.; Mitchell, R.H.; Chanock, R.M.; Shvedoff, R.A.; Stewart, C.E. An epidemiologic study of altered clinical reactivity to respiratory syncytial (RS) virus infection in children previously vaccinated with an inactivated RS virus vaccine. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1969, 89, 405-421.
111. Kim, H.W.; Canchola, J.G.; Brandt, C.D.; Pyles, G.; Chanock, R.M.; Jensen, K.; Parrott, R.H. Respiratory syncytial virus disease in infants despite prior administration of antigenic inactivated vaccine. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1969, 89, 422-434.
112. Kimman, T.G.; Sol, J.; Westenbrink, F.; Straver, P.J. A severe outbreak of respiratory tract disease associated with bovine respiratory syncytial virus probably enhanced by vaccination with modified live vaccine. Vet. Q. 1989, 11, 250-253.
113. Schreiber, P.; Matheise, J.P.; Dessy, F.; Heimann, M.; Letesson, J.J.; Coppe, P.; Collard, A. High mortality rate associated with bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV) infection in Belgian white blue calves previously vaccinated with an inactivated BRSV vaccine. J. Vet. Med. B. Infect. Dis. Vet. Public Health 2000, 47, 535-550.
114. Antonis, A.F.; Schrijver, R.S.; Daus, F.; Steverink, P.J.; Stockhofe, N.; Hensen, E.J.; Langedijk, J.P.; van der Most, R.G. Vaccine-induced immunopathology during bovine respiratory syncytial virus infection: exploring the parameters of pathogenesis. J. Virol. 2003, 77, 12067-12073.
115. Gershwin, L.J.; Schelegle, E.S.; Gunther, R.A.; Anderson, M.L.; Woolums, A.R.; Larochelle, D.R.; Boyle, G.A.; Friebertshauser, K.E.; Singer, R.S. A bovine model of vaccine enhanced respiratory syncytial virus pathophysiology. Vaccine 1998, 16, 1225-1236.
116. West, K.; Petrie, L.; Haines, D.M.; Konoby, C.; Clark, E.G.; Martin, K.; Ellis, J.A. The effect of formalin-inactivated vaccine on respiratory disease associated with bovine respiratory syncytial virus infection in calves. Vaccine 1999, 17, 809-820.
117. Mohanty, S.B.; Rockemann, D.D.; Davidson, J.P.; Sharabrin, O.I.; Forst, S.M. Effect of vaccinal serum antibodies on bovine respiratory syncytial viral infection in calves. Am. J. Vet. Res. 1981, 42, 881-883.
118. Kalina, W.V.; Woolums, A.R.; Berghaus, R.D.; Gershwin, L.J. Formalin-inactivated bovine RSV vaccine enhances a Th2 mediated immune response in infected cattle. Vaccine 2004, 22, 1465-1474.
119. Hurwitz, J.L. Respiratory syncytial virus vaccine development. Expert Rev. Vaccines 2011, 10, 1415-1433.
120. Karron, R.A.; Wright, P.F.; Belshe, R.B.; Thumar, B.; Casey, R.; Newman, F.; Polack, F.P.; Randolph, V.B.; Deatly, A.; Hackell, J.; et al. Identification of a recombinant live attenuated respiratory syncytial virus vaccine candidate that is highly attenuated in infants. J. Infect. Dis. 2005, 191, 1093-1104.
121. Luongo, C.; Winter, C.C.; Collins, P.L.; Buchholz, U.J. Increased genetic and phenotypic stability of a promising live-attenuated respiratory syncytial virus vaccine candidate by reverse genetics. J. Virol. 2012, 86, 10792-10804.
122. Tang, R.S.; MacPhail, M.; Schickli, J.H.; Kaur, J.; Robinson, C.L.; Lawlor, H.A.; Guzzetta, J.M.; Spaete, R.R.; Haller, A.A. Parainfluenza virus type 3 expressing the native or soluble fusion (F) Protein of Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) confers protection from RSV infection in African green monkeys. J. Virol. 2004, 78, 11198-11207.
123. Bernstein, D.I.; Malkin, E.; Abughali, N.; Falloon, J.; Yi, T.; Dubovsky, F. Phase 1 study of the safety and immunogenicity of a live, attenuated respiratory syncytial virus and parainfluenza virus type 3 vaccine in seronegative children. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2012, 31, 109-114.
124. Tang, R.S.; Spaete, R.R.; Thompson, M.W.; MacPhail, M.; Guzzetta, J.M.; Ryan, P.C.; Reisinger, K.; Chandler, P.; Hilty, M.; Walker, R.E.; et al. Development of a PIV-vectored RSV vaccine: preclinical evaluation of safety, toxicity, and enhanced disease and initial clinical testing in healthy adults. Vaccine 2008, 26, 6373-6382.
125. Valarcher, J.F.; Furze, J.; Wyld, S.; Cook, R.; Conzelmann, K.K.; Taylor, G. Role of alpha/beta interferons in the attenuation and immunogenicity of recombinant bovine respiratory syncytial viruses lacking NS proteins. J. Virol. 2003, 77, 8426-8439.
126. Mapletoft, J.W.; Oumouna, M.; Townsend, H.G.; Gomis, S.; Babiuk, L.A.; van Drunen Littel-van den Hurk, S. Formulation with CpG oligodeoxynucleotides increases cellular immunity and protection induced by vaccination of calves with formalin-inactivated bovine respiratory syncytial virus. Virology 2006, 353, 316-323.
127. Hagglund, S.; Hu, K.F.; Larsen, L.E.; Hakhverdyan, M.; Valarcher, J.F.; Taylor, G.; Morein, B.; Belak, S.; Alenius, S. Bovine respiratory syncytial virus ISCOMs--protection in the presence of maternal antibodies. Vaccine 2004, 23, 646-655.
128. Hagglund, S.; Hu, K.; Vargmar, K.; Pore, L.; Olofson, A.S.; Blodorn, K.; Anderson, J.; Ahooghalandari, P.; Pringle, J.; Taylor, G.; et al. Bovine respiratory syncytial virus ISCOMs-Immunity, protection and safety in young conventional calves. Vaccine 2011, 29, 8719-8730.
129. Hewison, M. Vitamin D and innate and adaptive immunity. Vitam. Horm. 2011, 86, 23-62.
130. Mora, J.R.; Iwata, M.; von Andrian, U.H. Vitamin effects on the immune system: vitamins A and D take centre stage. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2008, 8, 685-698.
131. Adams, J.S.; Liu, P.T.; Chun, R.; Modlin, R.L.; Hewison, M. Vitamin D in defense of the human immune response. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2007, 1117, 94-105.
132. Bikle, D.D. Vitamin D regulation of immune function. Vitam Horm 2011, 86, 1-21.
133. Nelson, C.D.; Reinhardt, T.A.; Beitz, D.C.; Lippolis, J.D. In vivo activation of the intracrine vitamin D pathway in innate immune cells and mammary tissue during a bacterial infection. PLoS One 2010, 5, e15469.
134. Nelson, C.D.; Reinhardt, T.A.; Thacker, T.C.; Beitz, D.C.; Lippolis, J.D. Modulation of the bovine innate immune response by production of 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) in bovine monocytes. J. Dairy Sci. 2010, 93, 1041-1049.
135. Grant, C.C.; Wall, C.R.; Gibbons, M.J.; Morton, S.M.; Santosham, M.; Black, R.E. Child nutrition and lower respiratory tract disease burden in New Zealand: a global context for a national perspective. J. Paediatr. Child. Health 2011, 47, 497-504.
136. Karatekin, G.; Kaya, A.; Salihoglu, O.; Balci, H.; Nuhoglu, A. Association of subclinical vitamin D deficiency in newborns with acute lower respiratory infection and their mothers. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2009, 63, 473-477.
137. Wayse, V.; Yousafzai, A.; Mogale, K.; Filteau, S. Association of subclinical vitamin D deficiency with severe acute lower respiratory infection in Indian children under 5 y. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2004, 58, 563-567.
138. Hansdottir, S.; Monick, M.M.; Lovan, N.; Powers, L.; Gerke, A.; Hunninghake, G.W. Vitamin D decreases respiratory syncytial virus induction of NF-kappaB-linked chemokines and cytokines in airway epithelium while maintaining the antiviral state. J. Immunol. 2010, 184, 965-974.
139. Abu-Harb, M.; Bell, F.; Finn, A.; Rao, W.H.; Nixon, L.; Shale, D.; Everard, M.L. IL-8 and neutrophil elastase levels in the respiratory tract of infants with RSV bronchiolitis. Eur. Respir. J. 1999, 14, 139-143.