Racial/ethnic disparities in maternal morbidities: A statewide study of labor and delivery hospitalizations in Wisconsin

Maternal and Child Health Journal

Volumn 16, Issue 7, 2012, Pages 1455-1467

  Cabacungan, Erwin T ^a   Ngui, Emmanuel M ^b   McGinley, Emily L ^a  

^a MEDICAL COLLEGE OF WISCONSIN   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MILWAUKEE   (United States)

Author keywords

Disparities; Ethnicity; Labor and delivery hospitalizations; Maternal morbidities; Race

Indexed keywords

ABORIGINE; ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AFRICAN AMERICAN; ARTICLE; ASIAN AMERICAN; CAUCASIAN; DELIVERY; ETHNOLOGY; FEMALE; HOSPITALIZATION; HUMAN; INFANT; LABOR; LABOR COMPLICATION; MIDDLE AGED; MORBIDITY; PREGNANCY; PREGNANCY OUTCOME; RETROSPECTIVE STUDY; SOCIOECONOMICS; STATISTICAL MODEL; STATISTICS; UNITED STATES;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AFRICAN AMERICANS; ASIAN AMERICANS; DELIVERY, OBSTETRIC; EUROPEAN CONTINENTAL ANCESTRY GROUP; FEMALE; HOSPITALIZATION; HUMANS; INFANT; LABOR, OBSTETRIC; LOGISTIC MODELS; MIDDLE AGED; MORBIDITY; OBSTETRIC LABOR COMPLICATIONS; OCEANIC ANCESTRY GROUP; PREGNANCY; PREGNANCY OUTCOME; RETROSPECTIVE STUDIES; SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS; WISCONSIN; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 84871691013     PISSN: 10927875     EISSN: 15736628     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10995-011-0914-6     Document Type: Article

References (95)

1. Danel, I., Berg, C., Johnson, C. H., & Atrash, H. (2003). Magnitude of maternal morbidity during labor and delivery: United States, 1993-1997. American Journal of Public Health, 93(4), 631-634. (Pubitemid 36790884)
2. United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). (2008). The state of the world's children 2009: Maternal and newborn health. Available from http://www.unicef. org/sowc09/docs/SOWC09-FullReport-EN.pdf. Accessed July 20, 2010.
3. Yeakey, M. P., Chipeta, E., Taulo, F., & Tsui, A. O. (2009). The lived experience of Malawian women with obstetric fistula. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 11(5), 499-513.
4. Berg, C. J., Mackay, A. P., Qin, C., & Callaghan, W. M. (2009). Overview of maternal morbidity during hospitalization for labor and delivery in the United States: 1993-1997 and 2001-2005. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 113(5), 1075-1081. doi:10.1097/AOG.0b013e3181a09fc0.
5. Guendelman, S., Thornton, D., Gould, J., & Hosang, N. (2006). Mexican women in California: Differentials in maternal morbidity between foreign and US-born populations. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology, 20(6), 471-481. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3016.2006.00751.x. (Pubitemid 44581545)
6. Guendelman, S., Thornton, D., Gould, J., & Hosang, N. (2006). Obstetric complications during labor and delivery: Assessing ethnic differences in California. Women's Health Issues, 16(4), 189-197. doi:10.1016/j.whi.2005.12. 004. (Pubitemid 44233339)
7. Guendelman, S., Thornton, D., Gould, J., & Hosang, N. (2005). Social disparities in maternal morbidity during labor and delivery between Mexican-born and US-born White Californians, 1996-1998.American Journal ofPublicHealth, 95(12), 2218-2224. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2004.051441. (Pubitemid 41740255)
8. Tanaka, M., Jaamaa, G., Kaiser, M., Hills, E., Soim, A., Zhu, M., et al. (2007). Racial disparity in hypertensive disorders of pregnancy in New York State: A 10-year longitudinal populationbased study. American Journal of Public Health, 97(1), 163-170. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2005.068577. (Pubitemid 46067699)
9. Shen, J. J., Tymkow, C., & MacMullen, N. (2005). Disparities in maternal outcomes among four ethnic populations. Ethnicity and Disease, 15(3), 492-497. (Pubitemid 41245560)
10. Kim, S. Y., Dietz, P. M., England, L., Morrow, B., & Callaghan, W. M. (2007). Trends in pre-pregnancy obesity in nine states, 1993-2003. Obesity (Silver Spring, Md.), 15(4), 986-993. doi: 10.1038/oby.2007.621. (Pubitemid 46740974)
11. Schieve, L. A., & Handler, A. (1996). Preterm delivery and perinatal death among Black and White infants in a Chicago-area perinatal registry. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 88(3), 356-363. doi:10.1016/0029-7844(96)00203-7. (Pubitemid 26293278)
12. Nicholson, W. K., Fox, H. E., Cooper, L. A., Strobino, D., Witter, F., & Powe, N. R. (2006). Maternal race, procedures, and infant birth weight in type 2 and gestational diabetes. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 108(3 Pt 1), 626-634. doi:10.1097/01.AOG.0000231682.84615.b3. (Pubitemid 44337105)
13. Ford, J., Grewal, J., Mikolajczyk, R., Meikle, S., & Zhang, J. (2008). Primary cesarean delivery among parous women in the United States, 1990-2003. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 112(6), 1235-1241. doi:10.1097/AOG. 0b013e31818ce092.
14. Getahun, D., Nath, C., Ananth, C. V., Chavez, M. R., & Smulian, J. C. (2008). Gestational diabetes in the United States: Temporal trends 1989 through 2004. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 198(5), 525.e1-525.e5. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2007.11.017.
15. Shen, T. T., DeFranco, E. A., Stamilio, D. M., Chang, J. J., & Muglia, L. J. (2008). A population-based study of race-specific risk for placental abruption. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 8, 43. doi:10.1186/1471-2393- 8-43.
16. Rathore, S. S., & McMahon, M. J. (2001). Racial variation in the frequency of intrapartum hemorrhage. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 97(2), 178-183. (Pubitemid 32126329)
17. Ananth, C. V., Oyelese, Y., Yeo, L., Pradhan, A., & Vintzileos, A. M. (2005). Placental abruption in the United States, 1979 through 2001: Temporal trends and potential determinants. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 192(1), 191-198. doi: 10.1016/j.ajog.2004.05.087. (Pubitemid 40164241)
18. Dabelea, D., Snell-Bergeon, J. K., Hartsfield, C. L., Bischoff, K. J., Hamman, R. F., McDuffie, R. S., et al. (2005). Increasing prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) over time and by birth cohort: Kaiser Permanente of Colorado GDM screening program. Diabetes Care, 28(3), 579-584. (Pubitemid 40315316)
19. Scott, C. L., Chavez, G. F., Atrash, H. K., Taylor, D. J., Shah, R. S., & Rowley, D. (1997). Hospitalizations for severe complications of pregnancy, 1987-1992. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 90(2), 225-229. doi:10.1016/S0029- 7844(97)00230-5. (Pubitemid 27318837)
20. Tucker, M. J., Berg, C. J., Callaghan, W. M., & Hsia, J. (2007). The black-white disparity in pregnancy-related mortality from 5 conditions: Differences in prevalence and case-fatality rates. American Journal of Public Health, 97(2), 247-251. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2005.072975. (Pubitemid 47279370)
21. Rosenberg, D., Geller, S. E., Studee, L., & Cox, S. M. (2006). Disparities in mortality among high risk pregnant women in Illinois: A population based study. Annals of Epidemiology, 16(1), 26-32. doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2005.04.007. (Pubitemid 41783885)
22. Mascola, M. A., Schellpfeffer, M. A., Kruse, T. K., Conway, A. E., Kvale, K. M., & Katcher, M. L. (2004). Pregnancy-associated deaths and pregnancy-related deaths in Wisconsin, 1998-2001. Wisconsin Medical Journal, 103(5), 61-66. (Pubitemid 40228231)
23. Wisconsin Department of Health Services, Division of Public Health, Bureau of Health Information and Policy. (2010). Wisconsin health facts: Racial and ethnic disparity in infant mortality. Available from http://dhs.wisconsin. gov/healthybirths/pdf/infanthealthfactsheet.pdf. Accessed February 20, 2010.
24. Ngui, E., Cortright, A., & Blair, K. (2009). An investigation of paternity status and other factors associated with racial and ethnic disparities in birth outcomes in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 13(4), 467-478.
25. Centers for Disease Control, Prevention (CDC). (2001). Pregnancy- related deaths among Hispanic, Asian/Pacific Islander, and American Indian/Alaska native women-United States, 1991-1997. MMWR:Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 50(18), 361-364.
26. Hopkins, F. W., MacKay, A. P., Koonin, L. M., Berg, C. J., Irwin, M., & Atrash, H. K. (1999). Pregnancy-related mortality in Hispanic women in the United States. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 94(5 Pt 1), 747-752. (Pubitemid 29484443)
27. HCUP State Inpatient Databases (SID), Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project (HCUP). (2009). Overview of the state inpatient databases (SID). Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, Rockville, MD. Available from: http://www.hcup-us.ahrq.gov/sidoverview.jsp. Accessed June 1, 2009.
28. Kuklina, E. V., Whiteman, M. K., Hillis, S. D., Jamieson, D. J., Meikle, S. F., Posner, S. F., et al. (2008). An enhanced method for identifying obstetric deliveries: Implications for estimating maternal morbidity. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 12(4), 469-477. doi:10.1007/s10995-007-0256-6.
29. Wisconsin Department of Health Services, Wisconsin STD Program. (2009). Sexually transmitted disease in Wisconsin 2008. Available from http://dhs.wisconsin.gov/communicable/STD/2008Data/Wisconsin.pdf. Accessed February 25, 2010.
30. National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. (2009). International classification of diseases, ninth revision, clinical modification (ICD-9). Hyattsville, MD: US Department of Health and Human Services.
31. Williams, R. (2006). Generalized ordered logit/partial proportional odds models for ordinal dependent variables. The Stata Journal, 6, 58-82. (Pubitemid 43708444)
32. Perloff, J. D., & Jaffee, K. D. (1999). Late entry into prenatal care: The neighborhood context. Social Work, 44(2), 116-128.
33. Thorpe, K. E., & Galactionova, K. (2010). The distribution of health insurance coverage among pregnant women, 2007. Available from: http://www.marchofdimes.com/downloads/The-Distribution-of-Health-Insurance- Coverage-among-Pregnant-Women.pdf. Accessed September 7, 2011.
34. Samadi, A. R., Mayberry, R. M., Zaidi, A. A., Pleasant, J. C., McGhee, N., Jr., & Rice, R. J. (1996). Maternal hypertension and associated pregnancy complications among African-American and other women in the United States. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 87(4), 557-563. doi:10.1016/0029-7844(95) 00480-7. (Pubitemid 26102741)
35. MacMullen, N. J., Tymkow, C., & Shen, J. J. (2006). Adverse maternal outcomes in women with asthma: Differences by race. MCN: The American Journal of Maternal Child Nursing, 31(4), 263-268. (Pubitemid 44325764)
36. Carroll, K. N., Griffin, M. R., Gebretsadik, T., Shintani, A., Mitchel, E., & Hartert, T. V. (2005). Racial differences in asthma morbidity during pregnancy. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 106(1), 66-72. doi:10.1097/01.AOG. 0000164471.87157.4c. (Pubitemid 40898436)
37. Ananth, C. V., & Vintzileos, A. M. (2006). Epidemiology of preterm birth and its clinical subtypes. The Journal of Maternal- Fetal & Neonatal Medicine, 19(12), 773-782. doi:10.1080/14767050600965882. (Pubitemid 46033110)
38. Morken, N. H., Kallen, K., & Jacobsson, B. (2007). Outcomes of preterm children according to type of delivery onset: A nationwide population-based study. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology, 21(5), 458-464. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3016.2007.00823.x. (Pubitemid 47256233)
39. Meis, P. J., Michielutte, R., Peters, T. J., Wells, H. B., Sands, R. E., Coles, E. C., et al. (1995). Factors associated with preterm birth in Cardiff, Wales. II. Indicated and spontaneous preterm birth. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 173(2), 597-602.
40. Slattery, M. M., & Morrison, J. J. (2002). Preterm delivery. Lancet, 360(9344), 1489-1497. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11476-0. (Pubitemid 35356329)
41. Hamilton, B. E., Martin, J. A., & Ventura, S. J. (2009). Births: Preliminary data for 2007. National Vital Statistics Reports, 57(12), 1-23.
42. Tuan, W. J., Hatfield, P., Bhattacharya, A., Sarto, G. E., & Kling, P. J. (2007). Possible factors illuminating increased disparities in neonatal mortality in Wisconsin from 1991-2005. Wisconsin Medical Journal, 106(3), 130-136. (Pubitemid 46890479)
43. Yang, Q., Wen, S. W., Phillips, K., Oppenheimer, L., Black, D., & Walker, M. C. (2009). Comparison of maternal risk factors between placental abruption and placenta previa. American Journal of Perinatology, 26(4), 279-286. doi:10.1055/s-0028-1103156.
44. Eskenazi, B., Fenster, L., & Sidney, S. (1991). A multivariate analysis of risk factors for preeclampsia. JAMA : The Journal of the American Medical Association, 266(2), 237-241.
45. Knuist, M., Bonsel, G. J., Zondervan, H. A., & Treffers, P. E. (1998). Risk factors for preeclampsia in nulliparous women in distinct ethnic groups: A prospective cohort study. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 92(2), 174-178. (Pubitemid 28350843)
46. Bryant, A. S., Seely, E. W., Cohen, A., & Lieberman, E. (2005). Patterns of pregnancy-related hypertension in Black and White women. Hypertension in Pregnancy, 24(3), 281-290. doi: 10.1080/10641950500281134. (Pubitemid 41579638)
47. Brown, H. L., Chireau, M. V., Jallah, Y., & Howard, D. (2007). The "Hispanic paradox": An investigation of racial disparity in pregnancy outcomes at a tertiary care medical center. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 197(2), 197.e1,7; discussion 197.e7-9. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2007.04. 036. (Pubitemid 47198183)
48. Goodwin, A. A., & Mercer, B. M. (2005). Does maternal race or ethnicity affect the expression of severe preeclampsia? American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 193(3 Pt 2), 973-978. doi: 10.1016/j.ajog.2005.05. 047. (Pubitemid 41285479)
49. Sibai, B. M., Gordon, T., Thom, E., Caritis, S. N., Klebanoff, M., McNellis, D., et al. (1995). Risk factors for preeclampsia in healthy nulliparous women: A prospective multicenter study. The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Network of Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 172(2 Pt 1), 642-648.
50. Sibai, B. M. (2002). Chronic hypertension in pregnancy. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 100(2), 369-377. (Pubitemid 34874806)
51. Baraban, E., McCoy, L., & Simon, P. (2008). Increasing prevalence of gestational diabetes and pregnancy-related hypertension in Los Angeles County, California, 1991-2003. Preventing Chronic Disease, 5(3), A77.
52. Lawrence, J. M., Contreras, R., Chen, W., & Sacks, D. A. (2008). Trends in the prevalence of preexisting diabetes and gestational diabetes mellitus among a racially/ethnically diverse population of pregnant women, 1999-2005. Diabetes Care, 31(5), 899-904. doi:10.2337/dc07-2345.
53. Thorpe, L. E., Berger, D., Ellis, J. A., Bettegowda, V. R., Brown, G., Matte, T., et al. (2005). Trends and racial/ethnic disparities in gestational diabetes among pregnant women in New York City, 1990-2001. American Journal of Public Health, 95(9), 1536-1539. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2005.066100. (Pubitemid 41232944)
54. Ferrara, A. (2007). Increasing prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus: A public health perspective. Diabetes Care, 30(Suppl 2), S141-S146. doi:10.2337/dc07-s206. (Pubitemid 47036416)
55. Bacak, S. J. (2007). Maternal morbidity during delivery hospitalizations in American Indian and Alaska native women. The IHS Primary Care Provider. Available from: http://www.ihs.gov/provider/documents/2000-2009/PROV0207.pdf. Accessed February 20, 2010.
56. Park, J., Myers, D., Kao, D., & Min, S. (2009). Immigrant obesity and unhealthy assimilation: Alternative estimates of convergence or divergence, 1995-2005. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 69(11), 1625-1633. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.09.008.
57. Ramos, G. A., & Caughey, A. B. (2005). The interrelationship between ethnicity and obesity on obstetric outcomes. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 193(3 Pt 2), 1089-1093. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2005.06.040. (Pubitemid 41285499)
58. Leibhart, J. L., Wegner, M. V., & Pesik, M. J. (2008). Obesity, nutrition, and physical activity in Wisconsin. Available from: http://dhs.wisconsin.gov/health/physicalactivity/pdf-files/obesityreport.pdf. Accessed February 26, 2010.
59. Khan, L. K., Sobal, J., & Martorell, R. (1997). Acculturation, socioeconomic status, and obesity in Mexican Americans, Cuban Americans, and Puerto Ricans. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders, 21(2), 91-96. (Pubitemid 27075592)
60. Kaplan, M. S., Huguet, N., Newsom, J. T., & McFarland, B. H. (2004). The association between length of residence and obesity among Hispanic immigrants. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 27(4), 323-326. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2004.07.005. (Pubitemid 39370912)
61. Poston, B. (2009, May 14). Wisconsin's Hispanic population increases 48%. Journal Sentinel. Available from http://www.jsonline.com/news/wisconsin/ 44949522.html. Accessed March 10, 2010.
62. England, L. J., Levine, R. J., Qian, C., Soule, L. M., Schisterman, E. F., Yu, K. F., et al. (2004). Glucose tolerance and risk of gestational diabetes mellitus in nulliparous women who smoke during pregnancy. American Journal of Epidemiology, 160(12), 1205-1213. doi:10.1093/aje/. (Pubitemid 39628057)
63. Palmersheim, K. A., Hinterthuer, C. R., Glysch, R. L., & Jones, N. R. (2009). Smoking during pregnancy in Wisconsin and the United States: An update on trends and patterns, 1990-2007. Available from: http://www.medsch.wisc.edu/ mep/downloads/Documents/programbriefs/PregnancyTrends2009.pdf. Accessed February 24, 2010.
64. Pfeifer, M. (2010). "University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire Hmong population research project" University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire. Available from: http://www.uwec.edu/Econ/research/hmong/HPopulation.htm. Accessed March 20, 2010.
65. Karon, J., Long, D., Veroff, D., & University of Wisconsin Extension & Applied Population Laboratory. (2002). Wisconsin's Hmong population. Available from: http://www.apl.wisc.edu/publications/HmongChartbook.pdf. Accessed March 20, 2010.
66. Her, C., & Mundt, M. (2005). Risk prevalence for type 2 diabetes mellitus in adult Hmong in Wisconsin: A pilot study. Wisconsin Medical Journal, 104(5), 70-77. (Pubitemid 43150928)
67. Franzen, L., & Smith, C. (2009). Differences in stature, BMI, and dietary practices between US born and newly immigrated Hmong children. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 69(3), 442-450. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.05. 015.
68. Montana Department of Public Health and Human Services, Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion Program. (2010). Diabetes in pregnancy: Selected maternal morbidities and birth outcomes in American Indian and White women with and without diabetes for three time periods, 1989-1994, 1995-2000, and 2001-2006. Montana Clinical Communication and Surveillance Report. Available from: http://www.dphhs.mt.gov/PHSD/Diabetes/diabinfo-mt.shtml. Accessed February 25, 2010.
69. Wisconsin Department of Health Services, Division of Public Health, Bureau of Health Information and Policy. (2010). Wisconsin Interactive Statistics on Health (WISH) data query system, prenatal care module. Available from: http://www.dhs.wisconsin.gov/wish/. Accessed February 25, 2010.
70. Centers for Disease Control, Prevention (CDC). (1993). Prenatal care and pregnancies complicated by diabetes - US reporting areas, 1989. MMWR: Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 42(6), 119-122.
71. Goldenberg, R. L., Klebanoff, M. A., Nugent, R., Krohn, M. A., Hillier, S., & Andrews, W. W. (1996). Bacterial colonization of the vagina during pregnancy in four ethnic groups. Vaginal Infections and Prematurity Study Group. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 174(5), 1618-1621. (Pubitemid 26165289)
72. Geisler, W. M., & James, A. B. (2008). Chlamydial and gonococcal infections in women seeking pregnancy testing at familyplanning clinics. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 198(5), 502.e1-502.e4. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2007.11.023.
73. Colugnati, F. A., Staras, S. A., Dollard, S. C., & Cannon, M. J. (2007). Incidence of cytomegalovirus infection among the general population and pregnant women in the United States. BMC Infectious Diseases, 7, 71. doi:10.1186/1471-2334-7-71. (Pubitemid 47162170)
74. Hitti, J., Nugent, R., Boutain, D., Gardella, C., Hillier, S. L., & Eschenbach, D. A. (2007). Racial disparity in risk of preterm birth associated with lower genital tract infection. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology, 21(4), 330-337. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3016.2007.00807.x. (Pubitemid 46905336)
75. Schwartz, M. A., Wang, C. C., Eckert, L. O., & Critchlow, C. W. (1999). Risk factors for urinary tract infection in the postpartum period. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 181(3), 547-553. (Pubitemid 29453511)
76. Fiscella, K. (1996). Race, perinatal outcome, and amniotic infection. Obstetrical and Gynecological Survey, 51(1), 60-66. (Pubitemid 26033871)
77. Holzman, C., Lin, X., Senagore, P., & Chung, H. (2007). Histologic chorioamnionitis and preterm delivery. American Journal of Epidemiology, 166(7), 786-794. doi:10.1093/aje/kwm168. (Pubitemid 47428908)
78. Combs, C. A., Murphy, E. L., & Laros, R. K., Jr. (1991). Factors associated with postpartum hemorrhage with vaginal birth. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 77(1), 69-76.
79. Combs, C. A., Murphy, E. L., & Laros, R. K., Jr. (1991). Factors associated with hemorrhage in cesarean deliveries. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 77(1), 77-82.
80. Naef, R. W., I. I. I., Chauhan, S. P., Chevalier, S. P., Roberts, W. E., Meydrech, E. F., & Morrison, J. C. (1994). Prediction of hemorrhage at cesarean delivery. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 83(6), 923-926.
81. Magann, E. F., Evans, S., Hutchinson, M., Collins, R., Howard, B. C., & Morrison, J. C. (2005). Postpartum hemorrhage after vaginal birth: An analysis of risk factors. Southern Medical Journal, 98(4), 419-422. (Pubitemid 40530326)
82. Cabero Roura, L., & Keith, L. G. (2009). Post-partum haemorrhage: Diagnosis, prevention and management. The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine, 22(Suppl 2), 38-45. doi: 10.1080/14767050902860609.
83. Walfish, M., Neuman, A., & Wlody, D. (2009). Maternal haemorrhage. British Journal of Anaesthesia, 103(Suppl 1), i47-i56. doi:10.1093/bja/aep303.
84. Rouse, D. J., Leindecker, S., Landon, M., Bloom, S. L., Varner, M. W., Moawad, A. H., et al. (2005). The MFMU cesarean registry: Uterine atony after primary cesarean delivery. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 193(3 Pt 2), 1056-1060. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2005.07.077. (Pubitemid 41285494)
85. Hopkins, L. M., Caughey, A. B., Glidden, D. V., & Laros, R. K., Jr. (2005). Racial/ethnic differences in perineal, vaginal and cervical lacerations. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 193(2), 455-459. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2004.12.007. (Pubitemid 41159542)
86. Goldberg, J., Hyslop, T., Tolosa, J. E.,&Sultana, C. (2003). Racial differences in severe perineal lacerations after vaginal delivery. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 188(4), 1063-1067. (Pubitemid 36530064)
87. Howard, D., Davies, P. S., DeLancey, J. O., & Small, Y. (2000). Differences in perineal lacerations in Black and White primiparas. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 96(4), 622-624.
88. Chu, S. Y., Abe, K., Hall, L. R., Kim, S. Y., Njoroge, T., & Qin, C. (2009). Gestational diabetes mellitus: All Asians are not alike. Preventive Medicine, 49(2-3), 265-268. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2009.07.001.
89. Rao, A. K., Cheng, Y. W., & Caughey, A. B. (2006). Perinatal complications among different Asian-American subgroups. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 194(5), e39- e41. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2006.01.027.
90. Rao, A. K., Daniels, K., El-Sayed, Y. Y., Moshesh, M. K., & Caughey, A. B. (2006). Perinatal outcomes among Asian American and Pacific Islander women. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 195(3), 834-838. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2006.06.079. (Pubitemid 44292145)
91. Wong, L. F., Caughey, A. B., Nakagawa, S., Kaimal, A. J., Tran, S. H., & Cheng, Y. W. (2008). Perinatal outcomes among different Asian-American subgroups. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 199(4), 382.e1-382.e6. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2008.06.073.
92. United Health Foundation. (2010). America's health rankings: A call to action for individuals and their communities. Available from: http://www.americashealthrankings.org/2010/AHR2010Editioncompact.pdf. Accessed September 10, 2011.
93. Michalski, K., Gathirimu, J., Benton, A., Swain, G., Gass, E., & Ngui, E. (2010, December). 2010 Milwaukee Fetal Infant Mortality Review Report. Available from: http://www.milwaukee.gov/FIMR2010. Accessed September 23, 2011.
94. Lu, M. C., & Halfon, N. (2003). Racial and ethnic disparities in birth outcomes: A life-course perspective. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 7(1), 13-30.
95. Creasy, R. K., Resnik, R., Iams, J. D., Lockwood, C. J., & Moore, T. R. (2009). Creasy & Resnik's maternal-fetal medicine: Principles and practice (6th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier.