The REDD brick road from Cancun to Durban: Paved with carbon credits or public funding?

Asia Pacific Journal of Environmental Law

Volumn 13, Issue 2, 2010, Pages 179-206

  Downard, Fleur ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BOLIVIA; BRAZIL; CAMEROON; CARBON FOOTPRINT; CLIMATE CHANGE; CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK; CONGO; CONSENSUS DEVELOPMENT; COSTA RICA; DEFORESTATION; DENMARK; DEVELOPED COUNTRY; DEVELOPING COUNTRY; ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT; ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING; ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; FORESTRY; FUNDING; GHANA; GOVERNMENT; INDONESIA; INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION; LAND USE; LAW; LEGAL ASPECT; MALAYSIA; PAPUA NEW GUINEA; POLLUTION CONTROL; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REDUCING EMISSIONS FROM DEFORESTATION AND DEGRADATION; REVIEW; UNITED STATES;

EID: 84871050162     PISSN: 13852140     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (298)

1. Nicholas Stern, Stern Review: The Economics of Climate Change (2007), 537-9 〈http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http://www.hm-treasury. gov.uk/stern-review-report.htm〉.
2. Governments of Papua New Guinea and Costa Rica, Reducing Emissions from Deforestation in Developing Countries: Approaches to Stimulate Action, Submission to UNFCCC COP-11, UN Doc FCCC/CP/2005/MISC/1 (28 November - 9 December 2005), 4 〈http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2005/cop11/eng/misc01. pdf〉.
3. Ibid 4.
4. The Prince's Rainforests Project, Rainforests: The Burning Issue (Polestar UK Print Ltd, 2009), 28-31.
5. Ibid 32.
6. Stern, above n 1, 537.
7. UNFCCC, Fact Sheet: Reducing emissions from deforestation in developing countries: Approaches to stimulate action (June 2009) 〈http://www.unfccc. int/press/fact-sheets/items/4981txt.php〉.
8. UK Government News, 'Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Publishes Speech by RT Hon Caroline Spelman on Biodiversity and the Bottom Line' (July 15, 2010), 4. 〈http://www.defra.gov.uk/news/category/speeches/page/ 3/〉.
9. Gia Schneider, William L Thomas and Benjamin Vitale, 'Banking on the environment: Profiting from investment in REDD' (2009) 24(1) Natural Resources & Environment 14, 14.
10. UNFCCC, Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention: Negotiating Text, Twelfth Session, UN Doc FCCC/AWGLCA/2010/14 (4-9 October 2010), 24 〈http://unfccc.int/meetings/ad-hoc-working-groups/lca/ items/4918.php〉 ('Negotiating Text (2010/14)').
11. Note a number of journal articles generally refer to the mechanism as REDD without distinguishing between REDD and REDD-plus.
12. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ('UNFCCC'), opened for signature 4 June 1992, UNTS 107 (entered into force 21 March 1994), with 195 Parties (comprising 194 State Parties and one regional economic integration organisation) as of 19 August 2011.
13. The Cancun Agreements include a range of decisions and resolutions adopted by the 16th Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC in Cancun from 29 November to 10 December 2010. See UNFCCC, Decisions adopted by COP 16 and CMP 6 (2011), 〈http://unfccc.int/meetings/cop-16/items/5571.php〉.
14. Francesco Martone, Forest Peoples Programme, 'The Emergence of the REDD Hydra: An analysis of the REDD-related discussions and developments in the June session of the UNFCCC and beyond' (July 2010), 1-3 〈http://www. forestpeoples.org/topics/redd-and-related-initiatives/publication/2010/ emergence-redd-hydra〉.
15. Pew Center, Summary of the American Power Act of 2010 (Kerry-Lieberman) (14 June 2010), 29 〈http://www.pewclimate.org/federal/analysis/congress/ 111/pew-center-summary-american-power-act-2010-kerry-lieberman〉;
16. Ross W Gorte and Pervaze A Sheikh, Congressional Research Service, Deforestation and Climate Change (24 March 2010), 34 〈 http://www.fas.org/ sgp/crs/misc/R41144.pdf〉.
17. For example, 29 developing countries are currently involved with the UN-REDD Programme, see UN-REDD Programme, About the UN-REDD Programme (2010) 〈http://www.un-redd.org/AboutUNREDDProgramme/tabid/583/Default.aspx〉.
18. Louis Verchot and Elena Petkova, Centre for International Forestry Research ('CIFOR'), The state of REDD negotiations: Consensus points, options for moving forward and research needs to support the process (October 2009), 12-13 〈http://www.un-redd.org/Publications/tabid/587/Default.aspx〉; Negotiating Text (2010/14), UN Doc FCCC/AWGLCA/2010/14, 55, 58-9.
19. Martone, above n 14, 5.
20. Natalie Antonowicz, Climatico, 'REDD-Week 2 of the Cancun Conference' (13 December 2010), 〈http://climaticoanalysis.org/post/redd-%E2%80%93week-2- of-the-cancun-conference/〉.
21. UNFCCC, Ad Hoc Working Group on long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention: Provisional Agenda and Annotations, 14th session, UN Doc FCCC/AWGLCA/2011/1 (8 March 2011), [41-44], 〈http://unfccc.int/meetings/ad- hoc-working-groups/lca/items/4918.php〉.
22. Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, opened for signature 16 March 1998, 2303 UNTS 148 (came into force 16 February 2005), with 193 Parties (comprising 192 State Parties and one regional economic integration organisation) as of 19 August 2011.
23. Rosemary Lyster, 'The new frontier of climate law: Reducing Emissions from Deforestation (and Degradation)' (2009) 26 Environmental and Planning Law Journal 417, 420. Note these concerns with REDD credits will be explained in detail below.
24. Alexandre Kossoy and Philippe Ambrosi, State and Trends of the Carbon Markets 2010 (The World Bank, 2010), 40.
25. UNFCCC, Decision 2/CP.13, COP-13, UN Doc FCCC/CP/2007/6/Add.1 (3-15 December 2007) 〈http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2007/cop13/eng/06a01. pdf#page=8〉.
26. Lyster, above n 22, 420.
27. UN-REDD Programme, above n 16.
28. Forest Carbon Partnership Facility ('FCPF'), FY 2009 Annual Report: Demonstrating activities that reduce emissions from deforestation and degradation in developing countries (October 2009), 1-2 〈http://www. forestcarbonpartnership.org/fcp/〉.
29. Carbon Finance Unit, The World Bank, Biocarbon Fund (2011), 〈http://wbcarbonfinance.org/Router.cfm?Page=BioCF&ItemID=9708&FID= 9708〉.
30. Norwegian Ministry of the Environment and Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The Government of Norway's International Climate and Forest Initiative (2010), 〈http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/md/Selectedtopics/climate/the- government-of-norways-international-/why-a-climate-and-forestinitiative. html?id=547202〉.
31. Katherine Hamilton, Unna Chokkalingam and Maria Bendana, Ecosystem Marketplace, State of the Forest Carbon Markets 2009: Taking Root and Branching Out (2010), 63 〈http://www.ecosystemmarketplace.com/〉.
32. Ibid VI.
33. UNFCCC, Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention: Negotiating Text, Sixth Session, UN Doc FCCC/AWGLCA/2009/8, 1-12 June 2009), 32-3 〈http://unfccc.int/meetings/ad-hoc-working-groups/lca/ items/4918.php〉.
34. Ibid.
35. Richard L Ottinger, 'Copenhagen Climate Conference - Success or Failure?' (2010) 27(2) Pace Law Review 411, 417.
36. UNFCCC, Copenhagen Accord: Draft decision 2/CP.15, COP-15, UN Doc FCCC/CP/2009/L.7 (7-18 December 2009), [6 ], [8], 〈http://unfccc.int/ resource/docs/2009/cop15/eng/l07.pdf〉 ('Copenhagen Accord').
37. Lyster, above n 22, 427.
38. Copenhagen Accord, [8].
39. UNFCCC, Outcome of the work of the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention: Decision 1/CP.16, COP-16, UN Doc FCCC/CP/2010/7/Add.1 (29 November - 10 December 2010), 〈http://unfccc.int/ meetings/cop-16/items/5571.php〉 'Cancun Decision 1/CP.16 '.
40. Ibid [73].
41. Ibid [102].
42. Ibid [77].
43. This group consists of government representatives from developed and developing countries, senior executives from investment banks, development bank representatives and economists, see The Secretary-General's Highlevel Advisory Group on Climate Change Financing, Report of the Secretary-General's High-level Advisory Group on Climate Change Financing, Submission to the UNFCCC, UN Doc FCCC/AWGLCA/2010/ MISC.8/Add.1 (5 November 2010), 2.
44. Ibid.
45. Ibid 19-21.
46. Ibid 38.
47. Ibid 38.
48. Ross Garnaut, The Garnaut Climate Change Review: Final Report (Cambridge University Press, 30 September 2008), 340 〈http://www.garnautreview.org.au/ index.htm〉.
49. Stern, above n 1, 331;
50. Garnaut, above n 47, 327.
51. Karan Capoor and Philippe Ambrosi, State and Trends of the Carbon Markets 2009 (The World Bank, 2009), 12-14.
52. Ibid 4.
53. Stern, above n 1, Chapter 23, 14-17.
54. Ibid.
55. Ibid.
56. This concern can be partly alleviated by placing limits on the amount of offsets that can be used, see Rosemary Lyster, 'Domestic and international carbon offsets under the Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme: What prospects?' (2008) 27(1) University Of Tasmania Law Review 111, 113.
57. Ibid 114.
58. Garnaut, above n 47, 340-1.
59. Ibid.
60. Commission of the European Communities, Report from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council: Progress towards achieving the Kyoto objectives (COM(2009)630 final, Brussels, 12.11.2009), 15 〈http://eur-lex. europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2009:0630:FIN:EN:PDF〈.
61. Commission of the European Communities, 'Commission Staff Working Document accompanying the Report from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council: Progress towards achieving the Kyoto objectives' (SEC(2009)1581 final, Brussels, 12.11.2009), 18 〈http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/ LexUriServ.do?uri=SEC:2009:1581:FIN:EN:PDF〉.
62. Stern, above n 1, 331.
63. Lyster, above n 22, 441.
64. See Stern, above n 1;
65. Lyster, above n 22.
66. Robert O'Sullivan and Rick Saines, 'International Market Solutions to Protect Tropical Rainforests' in David Freestone and Charlotte Streck (eds), Legal Aspects of Carbon Trading: Kyoto, Copenhagen, and beyond (Oxford University Press, 2009) 583, 595.
67. Lucio Pedroni, Charlotte Streck and Manuel Estrada Porrua, 'Creating incentives for avoiding further deforestation: The nested approach', 3-4, 〈http://www.idesam.org.br/documentos/pdf/Nested-Approach-16.05.pdf〉.
68. Lyster, above n 22, 442.
69. Ian Fry, 'Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation: Opportunities and Pitfalls in Developing a New Legal Regime' (2008) 17(2) Review of European Community & International Environmental Law 166, 171.
70. Lyster, above n 22, 442.
71. Poverty Environment Partnership, 'Making REDD Work for the Poor - Policy Brief', 3, 〈http://www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/economics/?2052/ Making-REDD-Work-for-the-Poor〉.
72. Fry, above n 66, 171-2.
73. Lyster, above n 22, 444.
74. Fry, above n 66, 173.
75. Ibid.
76. Ibid 177.
77. O'Sullivan and Saines, above n 63, 591.
78. Ibid 591.
79. Lyster, above n 22, 445.
80. Ibid 447.
81. Ibid.
82. Poverty Environment Partnership, above n 68, 3.
83. Lyster, above n 22, 452.
84. 'Referendum urged on climate', The Guardian Weekly, 30 April 2010, 6.
85. O'Sullivan and Saines, above n 63, 601.
86. Ibid.
87. Lyster, above n 22, 439.
88. Negotiating Text (2010/14), UN Doc FCCC/AWGLCA/2010/14, 22-3, 52-9.
89. Ibid 55.
90. Chris Lang, REDD-Monitor, 'REDD in Cancun, part 1: What happened to Bolivia's text in the AWG-LCA?' (7 December 2010), 〈http://www.redd- monitor.org/tag/financing-redd/page/2/〉.
91. Ibid.
92. Negotiating Text (2010/14), UN Doc FCCC/AWGLCA/2010/14, 52.
93. Ibid 53-4.
94. Ibid 56.
95. Cancun Decision 1/CP.16, UN Doc FCCC/CP/2010/7/Add.1, [48].
96. Negotiating Text (2010/14), UN Doc FCCC/AWGLCA/2010/14, 55, 59.
97. Ibid 58-9.
98. Ibid 52-3.
99. UNFCCC, Preparation of an outcome to be presented to the COP, COP-16, UN Doc FCCC/AWGLCA/2010/L.7 (29 November - 10 December 2010), 13-14, 〈http://unfccc.int/meetings/ad-hoc-working-groups/lca/items/4918.php〉.
100. UNFCCC, Submissions by Parties in 2011 (2011) 〈http://unfccc.int/ documentation/submissions-from-parties-in-2011/items/5900.php〉.
101. Grenada on behalf of the AOSIS, Views on relating to the establishment of one or more market mechanisms to enhance the cost-effectiveness of, and to promote, mitigation action as referred to in FCCC/AWGLCA/2010/L.7, Submission to the UNFCCC AWG-LCA (February 2011), 4 〈http://unfccc.int/meetings/ad-hoc- working-groups/lca/items/4578.php〉.
102. Assigned Amount Units ('AAUs') are free units issued within the Kyoto Protocol emissions cap, see UNFCCC, Emissions Trading (2010) 〈http://unfccc.int/kyoto-protocol/mechanisms/emissions-trading/items/2731. php〉.
103. Grenada on behalf of the AOSIS, Views on relating to the establishment of one or more market mechanisms to enhance the cost-effectiveness of, and to promote, mitigation action as referred to in FCCC/AWGLCA/2010/L.7, Submission to the UNFCCC AWG-LCA (February 2011), 7 〈http://unfccc.int/meetings/ad-hoc- working-groups/lca/items/4578.php〉.
104. UN Non-Governmental Liaison Service, Civil society's response to the Cancun Agreements (2011) 〈http://www.un-ngls.org/spip.php?page=article- s&id-article=3176〉.
105. Hungary and the European Commission on behalf of the EU and its Member States and supported by Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Iceland, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Montenegro and Serbia, New market-based mechanisms to enhance the cost-effectiveness of, and to promote, mitigation action as referred to in FCCC/AWGLCA/2010/L.7, Submission to the UNFCCC AWG-LCA (February 2011), 1 〈http://unfccc.int/meetings/ad-hoc-working-groups/lca/ items/4578.php〉.
106. Ibid 5, 6.
107. Oslo Climate and Forest Conference, Agreement on financing and quick-start measures to protect rainforest (2010), 〈http://www.oslocfc2010. no/〉.
108. Charlotte Streck, Climate Focus, Financing REDD: A review of selected policy proposals (January 2009), 26 〈assets.panda.org/downloads/redd. pdf〉.
109. Ibid 26.
110. Ibid 25.
111. FCPF, Harvesting Knowledge of REDD-plus: Early Lessons from the FCPF Initiative and Beyond (19 November 2010), 25-26 〈http://www. forestcarbonpartnership.org/fcp/〉;
112. UN-REDD Programme, The UN-REDD Programme Strategy 2011-2015 (2010), 22 〈http://www.un-redd.org/Publications/tabid/587/Default.aspx〉.
113. Randall Abate and Todd Wright, 'A green solution to climate change: The hybrid approach to crediting reductions in tropical deforestation' (2010) 20 Duke Environmental Law and Policy Forum 87, 112.
114. Fry, above n 66, 177.
115. Abate and Wright, above n 109, 112.
116. Streck, above n 105, 27.
117. Amelia Thorpe and Lisa Ogle, Staying on Track: Tackling Corruption Risks in Climate Change (UNDP, 2010), 32.
118. Melissa Farris, 'The Sound of Falling Trees: Integrating Environmental Justice Principles into the Climate Change Framework for REDD' (2010) 20 Fordham Environmental Law Review 515, 547.
119. Streck, above n 105, 28.
120. Kossoy and Ambrosi, above n 23, 6, 10, 19.
121. Streck, above n 105, 28;
122. Hamilton et al, above n 30, V-VI.
123. Capoor and Ambrosi, above n 49, 4.
124. Ibid 4;
125. also see Stern, above n 1, Chapter 23, 14-17.
126. Michael L. Brown, 'Limiting Corrupt Incentives in a Global REDD Regime' (2010) 37 Ecology Law Currents 237, 240.
127. Thorpe and Ogle, above n 113, 41.
128. UN-REDD Programme, The UN-REDD Programme Strategy 2011-2015 (2010), above n 108, 21.
129. Timothy Gardner, 'Analysis: Carbon markets to struggle after Cancun', Reuters (online), 12 December 2010, 〈http://www.reuters.com/assets/print? aid=USTRE6BB15820101212〉.
130. Kossoy and Ambrosi, above n 23, 1, 30.
131. Plurinational State of Bolivia ('Bolivia'), Plurinational State of Bolivia: Second National Communication: Executive Summary (2009), 1-2 〈http://unfccc.int/national-reports/non-annex-i-natcom/items/2979. php〉.
132. The UNDP Human Development Index is a measure of the capacity of the people of a country to 'develop their full potential and lead productive, creative lives in accord with their needs and interests', see UNDP, Human Development Report 2009 (2009) 〈http://hdr.undp.org/en/humandev/〉;
133. Ibid 2-3.
134. UNFCCC, GHG Data -UNFCCC (2010) 〈http://unfccc.int/di/ DetailedByParty.do〉.
135. Bolivia, above n 125, 51.
136. International Energy Agency, CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion 2010 - Highlights, 97 〈http://www.iea.org/publications/free-new-Desc.asp?PUBS-ID= 2143〉.
137. Bolivia, above n 125, 54-5.
138. Ibid 55-8.
139. Mongabay, Bolivia: Environmental Profile (2010), 〈http:// rainforests.mongabay.com/20bolivia.htm〉.
140. Bolivia, above n 125, 2-3.
141. FCPF, Bolivia: Readiness Plan Idea Note (R-PIN) Template (2008), 6 〈wbcarbonfinance.org/docs/Bolivia--FCPF-R-PIN.pdf〉.
142. Marcus Colchester, CIFOR, Justice in the forest: Rural livelihoods and forest law enforcement (2006), 10-11, 〈http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/ Knowledge/Publications/Detail?pid=1939〈.
143. John Vidal, 'Bolivia enshrines natural world's rights with equal status for Mother Earth', The Guardian (online), 10 April 2011 〈http://www. guardian.co.uk/environment/2011/apr/10/bolivia-enshrines-natural-worlds- rights〉.
144. Ibid.
145. Colchester, above n 135, 43.
146. A Contreras-Hermosilla and MT Vargas-Rios, CIFOR, Social, environmental and economic dimensions of forest policy reforms in Bolivia (2002), 33 〈http://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf-files/Books/BoliviaEnglish. pdf〉.
147. FCPF, Bolivia: R-PIN, above n 134, Annex II, 2-3;
148. Ibid 3.
149. FCPF, Bolivia: R-PIN, above n 134, Annex II, 2;
150. Contreras-Hermosilla and Vargas-Rios, above n 139, 3-4.
151. FCPF, Bolivia: R-PIN, above n 134, Annex II, 2;
152. Contreras-Hermosilla and Vargas-Rios, above n 139, 3-4.
153. FCPF, Bolivia: R-PIN, above n 134, 2, Annex II, 2.
154. Contreras-Hermosilla and Vargas-Rios, above n 139, 3.
155. Ibid 6.
156. Ibid.
157. Ibid 8.
158. Ibid 8.
159. Ibid 33;
160. Colchester, above n 135, 21.
161. Contreras-Hermosilla and Vargas-Rios, above n 139, 33.
162. Ibid.
163. FCPF, Bolivia: R-PIN, above n 134, 3.
164. Ibid.
165. Mongabay, above n 132.
166. Göteborg University, Bolivia Environmental Policy Brief: Environmental Sustainability, Poverty and the National Development Plan (June 2007), 〈http://www.sida.se/Global/Countries and regions/LatinAmerica/ Bolivia/Environmental policy brief Bolivia.pdf〉.
167. Certified Emission Reductions are a type of carbon credit generated through the Clean Development Mechanism, a market mechanism established under the Kyoto Protocol. See UNFCCC, Clean Development Mechanism (2010), 〈http://cdm.unfccc.int/about/index.html〉.
168. FCPF, Bolivia: R-PIN, above n 134, 8.
169. Ibid 8-9.
170. Ibid Annex I, 2;
171. Peter H May, Emily Boyd, Fernando Veiga and Manyu Chang, Environmental Economics Programme, 'Local sustainable development effects of forest carbon projects in Brazil and Bolivia: A view from the field' (January 2004), 72 〈www.rlc.fao.org/foro/psa/pdf/susta.pdf〉.
172. Institute for Conservation and Sustainable Development of Amazonas ('IDESAM') and The Nature Conservancy Casebook Of REDD projects in Latin America (2009), 26 〈http://redd-net.org/resourcelibrary/casebook-of-redd-projects- in-latin-america〉.
173. Ibid 27.
174. Ibid 27.
175. May et al, above n 159, 72.
176. Ibid 72.
177. Ibid 83-6, 88.
178. Greenpeace, Carbon Scam: Noel Kempff Climate Action Project and the Push for Sub-national Forest Offsets: Sub-prime carbon brought to you by AEP, BP and PacifiCorp (15 October 2009) 1-2, 〈http://www.greenpeace.org/international/ en/publications/reports/noel-kempff-mercado-climate-ac/〉.
179. As noted previously, establishing deforestation baselines has proven problematic in REDD projects, see Lyster, above n 22, 442.
180. This would mean the requirement for the avoided deforestation to be permanent is not satisfied, see O'Sullivan and Saines, above n 63, 591.
181. See Fry, above n 66, 173.
182. Greenpeace, above n 166, 18-22.
183. Ibid 15-16.
184. Fundacion Amigos de la Naturaleza, Noel Kempff Mercado Climate Action Project: Position of Fundacion Amigos de la Naturaleza on Greenpeace's Report (2009), 〈http://www.fan-bo.org/en/noticia221009.php〉.
185. See Stern above n 1;
186. Lyster above n 22;
187. Fry above n 66;
188. O'Sullivan and Saines, above n 63, and the discussion above regarding the problems with the REDD mechanism.
189. UN-REDD Programme, The UN-REDD Programme Strategy 2011-2015 (2010), above n 108, 4.
190. Bolivia, above n 125, 62.
191. Note the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples is now included in the Cancun Agreements, also see Bolivia, Submission by the Plurinational State of Bolivia according to the paragraph 6 of the conclusions of the Chair in the 9 th session of the AWG-LCA, Submission to AWG-LCA (2010), 3-4 〈http://unfccc.int/meetings/ad-hoc-working-groups/lca/items/4578. php〉;
192. Martone, above n 14, 3, 5.
193. UNFCCC, Proposal on draft decisions submitted by the Plurinational State of Bolivia, COP-16, UN Doc FCCC/AWGLCA/2010/CRP.4 (9 December 2010), 1.
194. UNFCCC, Status of Ratification of the Kyoto Protocol (2010), 〈http://unfccc.int/kyoto-protocol/status-of-ratification/items/2613. php〉.
195. UNFCCC, Information provided by Parties to the Convention relating to the Copenhagen Accord, 〈http://unfccc.int/home/items/5262.php〉.
196. Bolivia, Submission by the Plurinational State of Bolivia according to the paragraph 6 of the conclusions of the Chair in the 9th session of the AWG-LCA, Submission to AWG-LCA (2010), 1 〈http://unfccc.int/meetings/ad- hoc-working-groups/lca/items/4578.php〉.
197. John Vidal and Suzanne Goldenberg, 'Deal is reached, Cancun summit', The Guardian (online), 11 December 2010.
198. Bolivia, above n 125, 46-8.
199. Evo Morales Ayma, President of Bolivia, 'Evo Morales on addressing climate change: 'Save the planet from capitalism'', 1 (LINKS: International Journal of Socialist Renewal, 28 November, 2008), 〈http://links.org.au/ node/769〉. Note that Morales' position has been reiterated in Bolivia's Second National Communication to the UNFCCC (above n 125) and in other submissions by the Bolivian Government to the UNFCCC.
200. Ibid 2.
201. Ibid 2.
202. Ibid 2.
203. Bolivia, Submission by the Plurinational State of Bolivia to the AWG-LCA: Outcome of the World's People's Conference on Climate Change (2010), 1 〈unfccc.int/files/meetings/ad-hoc-working-groups/lca/application/pdf/ bolivia-awglca10.pdf〉;
204. Andres Schipani, 'Referendum urged on climate', The Guardian Weekly, 30 April 2010, 6.
205. Bolivia, Submission by the Plurinational State of Bolivia to the AWG-LCA: Outcome of the World's People's Conference on Climate Change (2010), 1 〈unfccc.int/files/meetings/ad-hoc-working-groups/lca/application/pdf/ bolivia-awglca10.pdf〉.
206. UNFCCC, Proposal on draft decisions submitted by the Plurinational State of Bolivia, COP-16, UN Doc FCCC/AWGLCA/2010/CRP.4 (9 December 2010), 1.
207. UNFCCC, Information provided by Parties to the Convention relating to the Copenhagen Accord, 〈http://unfccc.int/home/items/5262.php〉.
208. ALBA-PTT Member States, Official Submission of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela on behalf of Cuba, Bolivia, Ecuador and Nicaragua: ALBA - PTT Member States, Submission to UNFCCC AWG-LCA (26 April 2010), 7 〈http://unfccc.int/ meetings/ad-hoc-working-groups/lca/items/4578.php〉.
209. UNFCCC, Proposal on draft decisions submitted by the Plurinational State of Bolivia, COP-16, UN Doc FCCC/AWGLCA/2010/CRP.4 (9 December 2010), 6;
210. Martone, above n 14, 5
211. Bolivia, Submission by the Plurinational State of Bolivia to the AWG-LCA: Outcome of the World's People's Conference on Climate Change (2010), 1-2.
212. Plurinational State of Bolivia, Submission by the Plurinational State of Bolivia: Establishment of one or more market-based mechanisms to enhance the cost-effectiveness of, and to promote, mitigation actions, Submission to UNFCCC AWG-LCA (21 February 2011), 1, 5 〈http://unfccc.int/files/meetings/ad-hoc- working-groups/lca/application/pdf/bolivia-market-mechanisms.pdf〉.
213. Ibid 1-5.
214. US Government, U.S. Climate Action Report 2010: Fifth National Communication of the U.S. under the UNFCCC, 4 〈http://unfccc.int/resource/ docs/natc/usa-nc5.pdf〉.
215. Ibid 4.
216. UNDP, Human Development Report 2009, 〈http://hdr.undp.org/en/ reports/global/hdr2009/〈.
217. UNFCCC, GHG Data - UNFCCC (2010) 〈http://unfccc.int/di/ DetailedByParty.do〉.
218. International Energy Agency, CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion 2010 - Highlights, 95 〈http://www.iea.org/publications/free-new-Desc.asp?PUBS-ID= 2143〈.
219. US Government, above n 196, 28.
220. Pew Center, above n 15.
221. Lyster, above n 22, 439.
222. Jeff Tollefson, 'Climate Strife and Political Life' Nature (online) 470, 22 February 2011), 451 〈http://www.nature.com/news/2011/110222/full/ 470451a.html〉.
223. Bob Smith, 'Outcomes from the Bonn Meeting (June 2010) UN Framework Convention on Climate Change' Mondaq (online), 28 June 2010, 〈http://www.mondaq.com/australia/article.asp?articleid=103866〉.
224. G Panicker, 'Differences cloud climate change talks', Business Times Singapore (online), 10 July 2010, 〈http://www.redd-monitor.org/2010/07/13/ redd-in-the-news-5-11-july-2010/〉.
225. For example, see Greenpeace, above n 166, i-iv;
226. Friends of the Earth, A dangerous distraction: Why offsetting is failing the climate and people: The evidence (2009), 4-5 〈www.foe.co.uk/resource/ briefing-notes/dangerous-distraction.pdf〉.
227. Rosemary Lyster, 'Domestic and international carbon offsets under the Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme: What prospects?' (2008) 27(1) University of Tasmania Law Review 111, 114.
228. Commission of the European Communities, Commission Staff Working Document accompanying the Report from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council: Progress towards achieving the Kyoto objectives (SEC(2009)1581 final, Brussels, 12 November 2009), 18, 〈http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/ LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:52009DC0630:EN:NOT〉.
229. Commission of the European Communities, Report from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council: Progress towards achieving the Kyoto objectives (COM(2009)630 final, Brussels, 12 November 2009), 15 〈http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:52009DC0630: EN:NOT〉.
230. Farris, above n 114, 546;
231. World Wildlife Fund, Getting Ready for REDD: Toward an Effective and Equitable Policy on International Forest Carbon (January 2009), 5 〈http://www.worldwildlife.org/climate/Publications/WWFBinaryitem11863. pdf〉.
232. Lyster, above n 22, 439.
233. AAP, 'U.S. Climate and Energy Bill Delayed', The Sydney Morning Herald (online), 23 July 2010, 〈http://www.smh.com.au/environment/climate-change/ us-climate-and-energy-bill-delayed-20100723- 10ntv.html〉;
234. Eileen Claussen and Manik Roy, Pew Centre, 'Climate Bill: Where to From Here?' on Eileen Claussen (29 July 2010), 〈www.pewclimate.org/blog/ claussene/climate-bill-where-from-here〉.
235. Kerry-Lieberman Bill, s 711.
236. Kerry-Lieberman Bill, s 753.
237. Lyster, above n 22, 439.
238. Kerry-Lieberman Bill, s 756;
239. Negotiating Text (2010/14), UN Doc FCCC/AWGLCA/2010/14, 52-9.
240. Kyle Danish, Shelley Fidler, Kevin Gallagher, Megan Ceronsky and Tomás Carbonell, 'Weekly Climate Change Policy Update - May 24, 2010', Mondaq Business Briefing, 2 May 2010, 2 〈http://www.vnf.com/news- policyupdates-466.html〉.
241. Chris Lang, REDD-Monitor, 'Just what REDD needed. Carbon offsets and another abbreviation. Welcome to 'R20'' (19 November 2010), 〈http://www. redd-monitor.org/tag/carbon-offsets/page/2/〉.
242. Ibid.
243. The lower court decision is currently the subject of an appeal lodged by the Californian Government in the Californian First District Court of Appeal, and pending the outcome of the appeal, the Californian Government can continue its implementation of the cap and trade system, see Reuters, 'California gets carbon market court win', Ecoseed, 27 June 2011, 〈http://www.ecoseed.org/ politics-article-list/article/3-politics/10246-california-gets-carbon-market- court-win〉.
244. Paul Rogers, 'California's global warming law takes a hit', The Mercury News (online), 21 March 2011, 〈http://www.mercurynews.com/science/ci- 17668367?nclick-check=1〉;
245. James Murray, 'Judge halts California's carbon market plan', Business Green, 23 May 2011, 〈http://www.businessgreen.com/bg/news/2072888/judge- halts-californias-carbon-market-plan〉.
246. Ibid.
247. UNFCCC, Status of Ratification of the Kyoto Protocol (2010), 〈http://unfccc.int/kyoto-protocol/status-of-ratification/items/2613. php〉.
248. Jane A Leggett, Congressional Research Service, A U.S.-centric Chronology of the International Climate Change Negotiations (8 February 2011), 2 〈http://www.cfr.org/publication/22103/crs.html〉.
249. President Barack Obama on 22 September 2009 addressing a UNFCCC meeting, see US Government, above n 196, 2.
250. For example, the proposed US American Power Act 2010 (the Kerry-Lieberman Bill) and the American Clean Energy and Security Act (the Waxman-Markey Bill), although these bills have stalled through Parliament.
251. UNFCCC, Information provided by Parties to the Convention relating to the Copenhagen Accord, 〈http://unfccc.int/home/items/5262.php〉.
252. Third World Network, Developed countries' emission cuts pledges under Copenhagen Accord (9 February 2010), 2 〈http://www.twnside.org.sg/title2/ climate/info.service/2010/climate20100209.htm〉.
253. Copenhagen Accord, [2]; UNFCCC Secretariat, 'UN Climate Change Conference in Cancun delivers balanced package of decisions, restores faith in multilateral process' (Press Release, 11 December 2010).
254. Leggett, above n 225, 4.
255. Vidal and Goldenberg, above n 181.
256. US Government, Submission of the U.S.: Organization of the Work of the AWG LCA in 2010, Submission to UNFCCC AWG-LCA (26 February 2010), 1-2 〈http://unfccc.int/files/meetings/ad-hoc-working-groups/application/pdf/ usawp2010-lca.pdf〉.
257. For instance, the Negotiating Text (2010/14) and previous drafts, including Negotiating Text (2010/8) and Negotiating Text (2009/8).
258. US Government, Submission of the U.S.: Organization of the Work of the AWG LCA in 2010, above n 233, 2-3;
259. US Government, Submission of the United States to the AWG-LCA Chair, Submission to UNFCCC AWG-LCA (26 April 2010), 1 〈http://unfccc.int/ meetings/ad-hoc-working-groups/lca/items/4578.php〉.
260. Lang, above n 87.
261. US Government, Submission of the United States to the AWG-LCA Chair, above n 235, 4.
262. UNFCCC, Information provided by Parties to the Convention relating to the
263. Vidal and Goldenberg, above n 181.
264. Martone, above n 14, 5.
265. See UNFCCC, Submissions from Parties in 2011 〈http://unfccc.int/ documentation/submissions-from-parties-in-2011/items/5900.php〉.
266. UNFCCC, Proposal on draft decisions submitted by the Plurinational State of Bolivia, COP-16, UN Doc FCCC/AWGLCA/2010/CRP.4 (9 December 2010), 2-3.
267. Ibid 2-3.
268. US Government, Submission of the U.S.: Organization of the Work of the AWG LCA in 2010, above n 233, 1-2.
269. UNFCCC, Proposal on draft decisions submitted by the Plurinational State of Bolivia, COP-16, UN Doc FCCC/AWGLCA/2010/CRP.4 (9 December 2010), 2-3.
270. Ibid;
271. Morales, above n 183, 2.
272. US Government, Submission of the United States to the AWG-LCA Chair, above n 235, 4.
273. UNFCCC, Proposal on draft decisions submitted by the Plurinational State of Bolivia, COP-16, UN Doc FCCC/AWGLCA/2010/CRP.4 (9 December 2010), 3;
274. Plurinational State of Bolivia, Submission by the Plurinational State of Bolivia: Establishment of one or more market-based mechanisms to enhance the costeffectiveness of, and to promote, mitigation actions, Submission to UNFCCC AWG-LCA (21 February 2011), 1-5 〈http://unfccc.int/files/meetings/ad-hoc- working-groups/lca/application/pdf/bolivia-market-mechanisms.pdf〉;
275. Morales, above n 183, 1-2.
276. US Government, Submission of the U.S.: Organization of the Work of the AWG LCA in 2010, above n 233, 8.
277. FCPF, above n 27, 18.
278. An Intergovernmental Taskforce, Synthesis Report: REDD+ Financing and Activities Survey (Supplement REDD+ Survey U.S.) (27 May 2010), 〈http://www.oslocfc2010.no/documentslinks.cfm〉.
279. Ibid.
280. For instance, in Latin America, projects have been funded by a large number of American companies, including Chevron, General Motors, Electric Power, Hyundai Motors America, Marriott Hotels, USAID, International Development Bank, Walt Disney, BP America, PacifiCorp, see IDESAM and The Nature Conservancy, above n 160.
281. For instance, the FCPF estimates it costs about US$13 million per country for the REDD-plus readiness activities, see FCPF, Harvesting Knowledge of REDD-plus, above n 108, 26.
282. Ibid 2, 26.
283. Ibid 26.
284. The Secretary-General's High-level Advisory Group on Climate Change Financing, above n 42, 38.
285. Ibid.
286. Ibid 66.
287. Ibid 66.
288. Ibid 66-7.
289. Thorpe and Ogle, above n 113, 57-9.
290. The resource rights or property rights created in respect of a REDD credit will depend on the legal framework of the relevant forested country, see Rosemary Lyster, 'REDD+, Transparency, Participation and Resource Rights: The Role of Law' (Sydney Law School Legal Studies Research Paper No 10/56, June 2010), 9-10.
291. For instance, see Lyster above n 22;
292. Streck above n 105.
293. Verchot and Petkova, above n 17, 13.
294. There are about 13 funds available for REDD mitigation activities, see Overseas Development Institute, UK, Climate Funds Update (2011) 〈http://www.climatefundsupdate.org/〉.
295. Thorpe and Ogle, above n 113, 42.
296. The Secretary-General's High-level Advisory Group on Climate Change Financing, above n 42, 66-7.
297. For instance, the United Nations Convention Against Corruption could be used as an anti-corruption framework, with transparency and accountability mechanisms implemented though multi-stakeholder monitoring, see Thorpe and Ogle, above n 113, 45.
298. FCPF, Harvesting Knowledge of REDD-plus, above n 108, 28.