A shark going inland is my chief: The island civilization of ancient Hawai'i

A Shark Going Inland is My Chief: The Island Civilization of Ancient Hawai'i

Volumn , Issue , 2012, Pages

  Kirch, Patrick Vinton ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

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References (206)

1. Cook's arrival at Kaua'i, and his observations on the Hawaiian people, may be found in The Journals of Captain James Cook: The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery, 1776-1780, edited by J.C. Beaglehole (Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, Cambridge University Press, 1967);
2. Quoted passages are from pp. ccxxi, 264 n. 1, 265, 269, 279. The Native Hawaiian version of first contact is given by Samuel Kamakau in Ruling Chiefs of Hawaii (Honolulu: Kamehameha Schools Press, 1961);
3. The quoted passage is from p. 92. The Hawaiian proverb of the chief as shark is from Mary Kawena Pukui, 'Olelo No'eau: Hawaiian Proverbs and Poetical Sayings, Bishop Museum Special Publication, no. 71 (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983), p. 87.
4. The lines of the chant are from Abraham Fornander, Fornander Collection of Hawaiian Antiquities and Folk-Lore, Bishop Museum Memoirs, vol. 6, pt. 3 (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1920), pp. 393-94. On the Russian fort and the fascinating history of the Russian incursion on Kaua'i,.
5. Peter R. Mills, Hawai'i's Russian Adventure: A New Look at Old History (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2002).
6. A discussion of archaic states and the criteria used to define them may be found in Gary M. Feinman and Joyce Marcus, eds., Archaic States (Santa Fe, N.M.: School of American Research, 1998).
7. The story of Edward Gifford and Richard Shutler's 1952 expedition to New Caledonia is told by Christophe Sand and Patrick V. Kirch in L'expédition archéologique d'Edward Gifford et Richard Shutler Jr. en Nouvelle-Calédonie au cours de l'année 1952, Les Cahiers de l'Archéologie en Nouvelle-Calédonie, vol. 13 (Noumea: Service des Musées du Patrimoine de Nouvelle-Calédonie, 2002).
8. The history of research in Lapita archaeology is recounted in Patrick V. Kirch, The Lapita Peoples: Ancestors of the Oceanic World (Oxford: Blackwell, 1997).
9. This book also provides a synthesis of information on the Lapita Cultural Complex, including the ceramics, subsistence, and social organization and exchange, much of it based on the results from Mussau.
10. The Lapita Homeland Project results are reported in Jim Allen and Chris Gosden, eds., Report of the Lapita Homeland Project, Occasional Papers in Prehistory, no. 20 (Canberra: Department of Prehistory, The Australian National University, 1991).
11. The Austronesian background to Lapita is best summarized by Peter Bellwood in The Prehistory of the Indo-Malaysian Archipelago (Sydney: Academic Press, 1985).
12. K.C. Chang's excavations at Tap'enk'eng were reported in Fengpitou, Tapenkeng, and the Prehistory of Taiwan, Yale University Publications in Anthropology, no. 73 (New Haven, Conn.: Department of Anthropology, 1969).
13. The early dugout canoes at the site of Kuahuqiao, as well as other early Austronesian remains in South China, are described in Tianlong Jiao, ed., Lost Maritime Cultures: China and the Pacific (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 2007).
14. My 1985 and subsequent discoveries in Mussau, at Talepakemalai and other sites, have been summarized in my 1997 book The Lapita Peoples, and described in more detail in Patrick V. Kirch, ed., Lapita and Its Transformations in Near Oceania, Archaeological Research Facility Contribution no. 59 (Berkeley: University of California, 2001).
15. The archaeological investigation of Niuatoputapu, including its Lapita site of Lolokoka, is reported in Patrick V. Kirch, Niuatoputapu: The Prehistory of a Polynesian Chiefdom (Seattle: Burke Museum, 1988).
16. An account of the August 1, 2002, ceremony at Koné, along with photos of the event, is provided by Christophe Sand in Pacific Archaeology: Assessments and Prospects, Les Cahiers de l'Archéologie en Nouvelle-Calédonie,
17. The Samoan myth of Tangaroa is recounted in various sources, including Margaret Mead, Social Organization of Manua, Bishop Museum Bulletin 76 (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1930).
18. Our archaeological investigations at the To'aga site on 'Ofu Island are documented in P.V. Kirch and T. L. Hunt, eds., The To'aga Site: Three Millennia of Polynesian Occupation in the Manu'a Islands, American Samoa, Contributions of the Archaeological Research Facility, no. 51 (Berkeley: University of California, 1993).
19. The world of Hawaiki and ancestral Polynesia is extensively reconstructed in Patrick V. Kirch and Roger C. Green, Hawaiki, Ancestral Polynesia: An Essay in Historical Anthropology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
20. Jeff Marck, Topics in Polynesian Language and Culture History, Pacific Linguistics, no. 504 (Canberra: Australian National University, 2000).
21. Robert Suggs's discoveries in the Marquesas are vividly recounted in The Hidden Worlds of Polynesia (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World, 1962).
22. A scientific report on his research is Robert Carl Suggs, The Archaeology of Nuku Hiva, Marquesas Islands, French Polynesia, American Museum of Natural History Anthropological Papers, vol. 49, pt. 1 (New York: American Museum of Natural History, 1961).
23. Patrick V. Kirch and Jennifer Kahn, "Advances in Polynesian Prehistory: A Review and Assessment of the Past Decade (1993-2004)," Journal of Archaeological Research, 15 (2007): 191-238.
24. The early sweet potato finds from Mangaia Island are described in Jon Hather and Patrick V. Kirch, "Prehistoric Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas) from Mangaia Island, Central Polynesia," Antiquity 65 (1991): 887-93.
25. Patrick V. Kirch, "The Peopling of the Pacific: A Holistic Anthropological Perspective," Annual Review of Anthropology 39 (2010): 131-48.
26. grounded in the archaeological and ethnographic evidence indicating what such a voyage must have entailed. The Polynesian words and names I have used in this chapter are based on reconstructions of Proto-Eastern Polynesian language. An excellent treatise on Polynesian and Pacific voyaging and voyaging canoes is Vaka Moana: Voyages of the Ancestors, ed. K. R. Howe (Auckland: David Bateman Ltd., 2006).
27. An older but nonetheless indispensable work on Oceanic canoes is by A.C. Haddon and James Hornell, Canoes of Oceania, Bernice P. Bishop Museum Special Publications, nos. 27, 28, and 29 (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1936, repr. 1975).
28. The Pacific golden plover (Pluvialis fulva) and its migratory habits are described by Anne Gouni and Thierry Zysman in Oiseaux du Fenua (Pape'ete: Tethys Editions, 2007).
29. The canoe-hauling chant from Hao atoll is from Kenneth P. Emory, Material Culture of the Tuamotu Atoll (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1975), p. 138;
30. I have slightly modified the translation to better render the Polynesian syntax. The quote from Captain James Cook is from J.C. Beaglehole, ed., The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery, vol. 1: The Voyage of the Endeavor 1768-1771, Hakluyt Society Extra Series no. 34 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1955), p. 154.
31. The story of Cook and Tupaia has been expertly recounted by Anne Salmond, Aphrodite's Island: The European Discovery of Tahiti (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009).
32. Abraham Fornander's classic work on Polynesian traditions is his three-volume An Account of the Polynesian Race: Its Origins and Migrations (London: Trübner, 1878-85).
33. S. Percy Smith's theory of Polynesian migrations is put forward in Hawaiki: The Original Home of the Maori With a Sketch of Polynesian History, 4th ed. (Auckland: Whitcombe & Tombs, Ltd., 1921).
34. Andrew Sharp presented his thesis of drift voyaging in Ancient Voyagers in the Pacific, Polynesian Society Memoir, no. 32 (Wellington: The Polynesian Society, 1956).
35. Te Rangi Hiroa's synthesis of Polynesian history was published under his European name, Peter H. Buck, Vikings of the Sunrise (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott, 1938).
36. The quote from Thor Heyerdahl is from his book Fatu-Hiva: Back to Nature (New York: Doubleday, 1975), p. 217.
37. An excellent account of how Thor Heyerdahl developed his theory of South American origins of the Polynesians, and of the Kon-Tiki voyage, is provided by Axel Andersson, A Hero for the Atomic Age: Thor Heyerdahl and the Kon-Tiki Expedition (Oxford: Peter Lang, 2010).
38. I have based my narrative account of the voyage to Hawai'i to some degree on the actual experiences of the Hokule'a on her experimental voyages.
39. These are recounted in Ben Finney's Voyage of Rediscovery: A Cultural Odyssey through Polynesia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994).
40. Other important sources on Polynesian voyaging and wayfinding include David Lewis, We, the Navigators (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1972);
41. Geoff Irwin, The Prehistoric Exploration and Colonization of the Pacific (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
42. The story of Abraham Fornander is told by Eleanor Harmon Davis in Abraham Fornander: A Biography (Honolulu: University Hawai'i Press, 1979).
43. Roger Rose deals with the founding and early years of the Bishop Museum in A Museum to Instruct and Delight (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1980).
44. John Stokes's career is discussed by Tom Dye in "Tales of Two Cultures: Traditional Historical and Archaeological Interpretations of Hawaiian Prehistory," Bishop Museum Occasional Papers, 29 (1989): 3-22
45. John F.J. Stokes, Heiau of the Island of Hawai'i, Bishop Museum Bulletin in Anthropology, no. 2 (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1991).
46. Edward S.C. Handy laid out his theory of Polynesian origins in "The Problem of Polynesian Origins," Bishop Museum Occasional Papers, 9 (1930): 1-27.
47. M.P. K. Sorrenson, Na To Hoa Aroha, From Your Dear Friend: The Correspondence between Sir Apirana Ngata and Sir Peter Buck, 1925-50, 3 vols. (Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1986-88).
48. A biography of Kenneth Emory, by his longtime friend Honolulu newspaper columnist Bob Krauss, is Keneti: South Seas Adventures of Kenneth Emory (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1988);
49. A historical overview of Pacific archaeology, including the theories of Te Rangi Hiroa and the emergence of modern archaeology after World War II, can be found in chapter 1 of
50. Patrick V. Kirch, On the Road of the Winds: An Archaeological History of the Pacific Islands before European Contact (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000).
51. The Hawaiian fishhook analysis was published by Kenneth P. Emory, William J. Bonk, and Yosihiko H. Sinoto, Hawaiian Archaeology: Fishhooks, Bernice P. Bishop Museum Special Publication, no. 47 (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1959).
52. The Halawa Valley Project from 1969 to 1970 produced important finds regarding the prehistory of Moloka'i, as described in Patrick V. Kirch and Marion Kelly, eds., Prehistory and Ecology in a Windward Hawaiian Valley: Halawa Valley, Molokai, Pacific Anthropological Records, no. 24 (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1975).
53. Gordon A. Macdonald and Agatin T. Abbott, Volcanoes in the Sea: The Geology of Hawaii (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1970).
54. A comprehensive review of Hawaiian natural history is also provided by Alan C. Ziegler in his Hawaiian Natural History, Ecology, and Evolution (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2002).
55. The 1967 excavations at the Bellows dune site, O-18, were described by Richard J. Pearson, Patrick V. Kirch, and Michael Pietrusewsky, "An Early Prehistoric Site at Bellows Beach, Waimanalo, Oahu, Hawaiian Islands," Archaeology and Physical Anthropology in Oceania, 6 (1971): 204-34.
56. The site is also discussed and illustrated in Patrick V. Kirch, Feathered Gods and Fishhooks: An Introduction to Hawaiian Archaeology and Prehistory (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1985), pp. 69-74.
57. The redating and interpretation of the chronology of the Bellows dune site is presented by Tom Dye and Jeffrey Pantaleo, "Age of the O18 Site, Hawai'i," Archaeology in Oceania, 45 (2010): 113-19.
58. The question of when Hawai'i was first settled by Polynesians is discussed by Patrick V. Kirch in "When Did the Polynesians Settle Hawai'i: A Review of 150 Years of Scholarly Inquiry and a Tentative Answer," Hawaiian Archaeology, 12 (2011): 3-26.
59. The coring of 'Ukoa and Kawainui marshes and results of the pollen analysis of their sediments are summarized by J. Stephen Athens, "Hawaiian Native Lowland Vegetation in Prehistory," in Patrick V. Kirch and T. L. Hunt, eds., Historical Ecology in the Pacific Islands (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1997), pp. 248-70.
60. Additional results of the pollen analysis may be found in J. Stephen Athens and Jerome V. Ward, "Environmental Change and Prehistoric Polynesian Settlement in Hawai'i," Asian Perspectives, 32 (1993): 205-23.
61. The initial finds of fossilized birds in Hawai'i were described by Storrs L. Olson and Helen F. James in Prodromus of the Fossil Avifauna of the Hawaiian Islands, Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology, no. 365 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1984).
62. Helen James and Storrs Olson, Descriptions of Thirty-two New Species of Birds from the Hawaiian Islands, Ornithological Monographs, no. 45 (Washington, D.C.: American Ornithologists Union, 1991).
63. The study of fossilized land snails from the Barber's Point sites is described by Carl C. Christensen and Patrick V. Kirch, "Non-Marine Mollusks and Ecological Change at Barbers Point, O'ahu, Hawai'i," Bishop Museum Occasional Papers, 26 (1986): 52-80.
64. Investigations of the 'Ewa Plain sinkholes, including dating of Polynesian-introduced rats, are presented by J. Stephen Athens, H. D. Tuggle, J.V. Ward, and D.J. Welch, "Avifaunal Extinctions, Vegetation Change, and Polynesian Impacts in Prehistoric Hawai'i," Archaeology in Oceania, 37 (2002): 57-78.
65. Alan C. Ziegler provides a good summary of Hawaiian flightless birds and fossil sites in chapter 22 of his Hawaiian Natural History, Ecology, and Evolution (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2002).
66. The nature of Hawaiian ecosystems prior to the advent of humans, based on recent archaeological and paleontological evidence, is also summarized by John L. Culliney, Islands in a Far Sea: The Fate of Nature in Hawai'i (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2006).
67. Kepelino's comments on astronomy and panana are to be found in Martha Beckwith's Kepelino's Traditions of Hawaii, Bishop Museum Bulletin 95 (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1932).
68. The dictionary definitions of panana are from Mary Kawena Pukui and Samuel H. Elbert, Hawaiian Dictionary (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1986), p. 313
69. Lorrin Andrews, A Dictionary of the Hawaiian Language (Honolulu: Island Heritage Publishing, 2003, facsimile of 1865 edition), p. 456. The legends of Mo'ikeha, 'Olopana, Kila, and La'amaikahiki are recounted in various sources;
70. The legends of Mo'ikeha, 'Olopana, Kila, and La'amaikahiki are recounted in various sources;
71. I have used a combination of them in the version given here.
72. Abraham Fornander's An Account of the Polynesian Race, 3 vols. (London: Trübner, 1878-85), vol. 2, gives the main story line, but a more detailed version of parts of the tradition can be found in
73. Abraham Fornander, Fornander Collection of Hawaiian Antiquities and Folk-Lore, ed. T.G. Thrum, Bernice P. Bishop Museum Memoirs, vol. 4, pt. 1 (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1916);
74. the quoted passage is from p. 128. Other useful sources for and commentary on these traditions include Samuel Kamakau's Tales and Traditions of the People of Old (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1991)
75. Martha Beckwith's Hawaiian Mythology (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1940)
76. Te Rangi Hiroa's Vikings of the Sunrise (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott, 1938).
77. The Legends and Myths of Hawai'i, attributed to the last king, David Kalakaua (but probably ghost-written by R.M. Daggett [repr. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 1990])
78. also gives a version of the La'amaikahiki tradition, including the famous triple marriage. The probable location of Moaulanuiakea as being in the Puna'auia district of Tahiti is discussed by
79. Edward S.C. Handy in History and Culture in the Society Islands, Bishop Museum Bulletin 79 (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1930).
80. The chant "Eia Hawai'i" and Kila's speech to Lu'ukia are quoted from Abraham Fornander, Fornander Collection of Hawaiian Antiquities and Folk-Lore, Bernice P. Bishop Museum Memoirs, vol. 4, pt. 1, pp. 20-21 and 124.
81. The results of XRF analysis tracing adz chips from Mangaia Island to the Tatanga-matau quarry in Samoa were published by M. I. Weisler and P.V. Kirch, "Interisland and Interarchipelago Transport of Stone Tools in Prehistoric Polynesia," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 93 (1996): 1381-85.
82. Adz C7727 from Napuka Island is described by Kenneth Emory in Material Culture of the Tuamotu Archipelago (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1975), and its chemical composition and sourcing are reported by K. D. Collerson and M. I. Weisler, "Stone Adz Compositions and the Extent of Ancient Polynesian Voyaging and Trade," Science, 317 (2007): 1907-11.
83. The mo'olelo of Ma'ilikukahi is given in its most detailed version by Samuel Kamakau in Tales and Traditions of the People of Old (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1991).
84. Abraham Fornander's Ancient History of the Hawaiian People (repr. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 1996) is an additional important source on Ma'ilikukahi and O'ahu in the fifteenth century.
85. Elspeth Sterling and Catherine Summers compiled information on the famous birthing place of Kukaniloko in Sites of O'ahu (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1978);
86. the site is also discussed in my book Legacy of the Landscape, with photographs by Thérèse Babineau (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1996).
87. The story of Kalaunuiohua of Hawai'i, and his attempted conquest of the islands, can be found in David Malo's Hawaiian Antiquities, Bishop Museum Special Publication, no. 2 (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1951), pp. 251-54.
88. A discussion of the Hawaiian ahupua'a system with citations to key sources may be found in Patrick V. Kirch, How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010), pp. 47-51 and 66-69.
89. The importance of taro in Hawaiian culture, along with the traditional methods of farming taro and other crops in Hawai'i, is thoroughly treated in Edward S.C. Handy's Native Planters in Old Hawaii: Their Life, Lore, and Environment, Bishop Museum Bulletin 233 (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1972).
90. The "Water of Kane" mele is quoted from Nathaniel Emerson's Unwritten Literature of Hawaii: The Sacred Songs of the Hula, Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin, no. 38 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1909), pp. 257-59;
91. note that I have slightly modified the English translation. Our pioneering 1970 study of irrigated agricultural terraces in the upper valley of Makaha was reported in detail in
92. D. E. Yen, P.V. Kirch, P. Rosendahl, and T. Riley, "Prehistoric Agriculture in the Upper Valley of Makaha, Oahu," Makaha Valley Historical Project, Interim Report no. 3, E.J. Ladd and D. E. Yen, eds. (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1972).
93. Jane Allen's study of the development of major irrigation works in Kane'ohe is reported in Five Upland 'Ili: Archaeological and Historical Investigations in the Kane'ohe Interchange, Interstate Highway H-3, Island of O'ahu, Bishop Museum Anthropology Department Report, no. 87-1 (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1987).
94. Allen also discusses key aspects of her research in "The Role of Agriculture in the Evolution of the Pre-Contact Hawaiian State," Asian Perspectives, 30 (1991): 117-32.
95. Another important study of valley irrigation on O'ahu is by Matthew Spriggs and Patrick V. Kirch, "'Auwai, Kanawai, and Waiwai: Irrigation in Kawailoa-Uka," in Patrick V. Kirch and Marshall Sahlins, Anahulu: The Anthropology of History in the Kingdom of Hawai'i (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), vol. 2, pp. 118-64.
96. The Karl Wittfogel quote is from Oriental Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1957), pp. 22 and 246.
97. Timothy Earle's book is How Chiefs Come to Power: The Political Economy in Prehistory (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1997);
98. quoted passage from p. 82. The GIS modeling of irrigation and dryland agriculture across the Hawaiian archipelago is presented in Thegn Ladefoged, Patrick Kirch, Sam Gon III, Oliver Chadwick, Anthony Hartshorn, and Peter Vitousek, "Opportunities and Constraints for Prehistoric Intensive Agriculture in the Hawaiian Archipelago," Journal of Archaeological Science, 36 (2009): 2374-83
99. Natalie Kurashima and Patrick V. Kirch in "Geospatial Modeling of Precontact Hawaiian Production Systems on Moloka'i Island, Hawaiian Islands," Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2011): 3662-74.
100. The quote from Cook, "I have no where . . . ," is from J.C. Beaglehole, ed., The Journals of Captain James Cook: The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery, 1776-1780 (Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, Cambridge University Press, 1967), pp. 490-91.
101. Lieutenant King's initial population estimate is from the same source, pp. 619-20.
102. His later, revised estimate was published in the official Admiralty account of the voyage. On the effect of introduced diseases on the Hawaiian population,
103. O.A. Bushnell, The Gifts of Civilization: Germs and Genocide in Hawai'i (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1993).
104. Robert Schmitt's lower estimate for initial Hawaiian population, along with George Youngson's estimate and the missionary census of 1831-32, is presented in Schmitt's book, Demographic Statistics of Hawaii, 1778-1965 (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1968).
105. The challenge to Schmitt and the historical demographers came from David E. Stannard, Before the Horror: The Population of Hawai'i on the Eve of Western Contact (Honolulu: Social Science Research Institute, University of Hawai'i, 1989);
106. the quoted passage is from p. 143. The Malthus quote is from An Essay on the Principle of Population (London: J. Johnson, 1798), p. 61.
107. Theories of Malthus, and of Verhulst, and the logistic equation and its variants are well described in G. Evelyn Hutchinson's An Introduction to Population Ecology (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1978).
108. The theory of island colonization is presented in Robert H. MacArthur and Edward O. Wilson, The Theory of Island Biogeography, Monographs in Population Biology, 1 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1967).
109. Raymond Firth's observations on population control on Tikopia are presented in chapter 12 of his book We, the Tikopia (New York: American Book Company, 1936).
110. Ester Boserup's book on innovation and agricultural change is The Conditions of Agricultural Growth: The Economics of Agrarian Change under Population Pressure (Chicago: Aldine, 1965).
111. Archaeological efforts to track population growth and change in Hawai'i are discussed in Patrick V. Kirch, "'Like Shoals of Fish': Archaeology and Population in Pre-Contact Hawai'i," in P.V. Kirch and J.-L. Rallu, eds., The Growth and Collapse of Pacific Island Societies (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2007), pp. 52-69.
112. My ideas on demographic change in Polynesian societies, including a detailed discussion of the evidence from Hawai'i, were presented in chapter 5 of Patrick V. Kirch, The Evolution of the Polynesian Chiefdoms (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984).
113. Tom Dye and Eric Komori published their radiocarbon-date-based model of Hawaiian population in "A Pre-Censal Population History of Hawai'i," New Zealand Journal of Archaeology, 14 (1992): 113-28.
114. My analysis of the population of Kahikinui on Maui is presented in Patrick V. Kirch, "Paleodemography in Kahikinui, Maui: An Archaeological Approach," in P.V. Kirch and J.-L. Rallu, eds., The Growth and Collapse of Pacific Island Societies (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2007), pp. 90-107.
115. The most recent archaeological data on ancient Hawaiian population is synthesized in Patrick V. Kirch, How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010).
116. Charles Wilkes's description of the Ahu a 'Umi may be found in his Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition during the years 1838 . . . 1842 (London: Ingram, Cooke, and Co., 1842);
117. quoted passages are from p. 142. The proposal that the Ahu a 'Umi functioned as an astronomical observatory was put forward by A.M. DaSilva and R. K. Johnson in "Ahu a 'Umi Heiau: A Native Hawaiian Astronomical and Directional Register," Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 385 (1982): 313-31.
118. The story of 'Umi is perhaps the most famous mo'olelo in the Hawaiian traditional corpus;
119. Three primary sources are Abraham Fornander, Fornander Collection of Hawaiian Antiquities and Folk-Lore, Bernice P. Bishop Museum Memoirs, vol. 4, pt. 2 (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1917), pp. 178-235;
120. quoted passages are from pp. 182, 184, 188, 198, 200, and 202;
121. David Malo, Hawaiian Antiquities, Bernice P. Bishop Museum Special Publication, no. 2 (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1951);
122. quoted passage is from p. 262;
123. Samuel Kamakau, Ruling Chiefs of Hawai'i (Honolulu: Kamehameha Schools Press, 1961), pp. 1-21;
124. quoted passage is from p. 14. The history is also recounted by Abraham Fornander in An Account of the Polynesian Race, 3 vols. (London: Trübner, 1878-85), vol. 2, pp. 95 et seq.;
125. By Padraic Colum in The Bright Islands (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1925), pp. 27-44;
126. Martha Beckwith in Hawaiian Mythology (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1940), pp. 389-92.
127. I have drawn from all of these sources for my own rendering of the 'Umi story. My description of the royal compound and temples of Waipi'o is based on Ross Cordy, Exalted Sits the Chief (Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 2000).
128. The quote from Menzies's journal is from Hawaii Nei 128 Years Ago: Journal of Archibald Menzies (Honolulu: W. F. Wilson, 1920), p. 52.
129. Father Bond's remarks are from Ethel M. Damon, Father Bond of Kohala: A Chronicle of Pioneer Life in Hawaii (Honolulu: The Friend, 1927), pp. 159 and 207.
130. T. Stell Newman's work on the Lapakahi field system, which includes a detailed analysis of the early ethnohistorical records, is contained in his Hawaiian Fishing and Farming on the Island of Hawaii in A.D. 1778 (Honolulu: Division of State Parks, Department of Land and Natural Resources, State of Hawai'i, n.d. [1970]).
131. Results of the University of Hawai'i archaeology field school at Lapakahi were summarized by H. David Tuggle and P. Bion Griffin, eds., Lapakahi, Hawaii: Archaeological Studies, Asian and Pacific Archaeology Series, no. 5 (Honolulu: Social Science Research Institute, University of Hawai'i, 1973).
132. Paul Rosendahl's detailed mapping of the Lapakahi uplands, and his excavations in the small field shelters, are presented in his article "Aboriginal Hawaiian Structural Remains and Settlement Patterns in the Upland Agricultural Zone at Lapakahi, Island of Hawai'i," Hawaiian Archaeology, 3 (1994): 14-70.
133. The pikoi type of tripping club is described by Te Rangi Hiroa (Peter H. Buck) in Arts and Crafts of Hawai'i, Bishop Museum Special Publication, no. 45 (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1957), pp. 455-60.
134. Kamalalawalu's war against Hawai'i is described in several sources, including S.M. Kamakau, Ruling Chiefs of Hawai'i (Honolulu: Kamehameha Schools Press, 1961), pp. 55-61.
135. Abraham Fornander, Fornander Collection of Hawaiian Antiquities and Folk-Lore, Bishop Museum Memoirs, vol. 4, pt. 2 (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1917), pp. 338-50.
136. The early sweet potato remains from Kohala are reported by T. N. Ladefoged, Michael W. Graves, and James H. Coil in "The Introduction of Sweet Potato in Polynesia: Early Remains in Hawai'i," Journal of the Polynesian Society, 114 (2005): 359-73.
137. The radiocarbon dating of the Kohala field system is described in Thegn N. Ladefoged and Michael W. Graves, "Variable Development of Dryland Agriculture in Hawaii," Current Anthropology, 49 (2008): 771-802.
138. The results of the Hawai'i Biocomplexity Project are summarized in Patrick V. Kirch, ed., Roots of Conflict: Soils, Agriculture, and Sociopolitical Evolution in Ancient Hawai'i (Santa Fe, N.M.: School of Advanced Research, 2010).
139. Additional insights on Hawaiian soils and how these affected the distribution of indigenous cultivation may be found in P.M. Vitousek, T. N. Ladefoged,P.V. Kirch, A.S. Hartshorn, M. W. Graves, S.C. Hotchkiss, S. Tuljapurkar, and O.A. Chadwick, "Soils, Agriculture, and Society in Precontact Hawai'i," Science, 304 (2004): 1665-69.
140. I also develop the arguments about intensification of Hawaiian dryland agriculture, and present more detailed evidence to support these, in my book How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010).
141. The quote from Marshall Sahlins is from Stone Age Economics (Chicago: Aldine, 1972), p. 82.
142. The progressive subdivision of ahupua'a territories in Kohala is demonstrated by Thegn Ladefoged and Michael Graves in "The Formation of Hawaiian Territories," in Ian Lilley, ed., Archaeology of Oceania (Oxford: Blackwell, 2006), pp. 259-83.
143. An excellent summary of Hawaiian theology, including the pantheon of gods, is given by Valerio Valeri, Kingship and Sacrifice: Ritual and Society in Ancient Hawai'i (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985).
144. Samuel Kamakau gives an account of the Hawaiian priesthood in Ka Po'e Kahiko: The People of Old, Bernice P. Bishop Museum Special Publication, no. 51 (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1964).
145. The tradition of Pa'ao and the introduction of the cult of Ku and of human sacrifice is recounted by various sources, including Samuel Kamakau's Tales and Traditions of the People of Old: Na Mo'olelo a ka Po'e Kahiko (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1991).
146. The quote from Abraham Fornander is from An Account of the Polynesian Race, 3 vols. (London: Trübner, 1878-85), vol. 2, p. 101.
147. Pi'ilanihale heiau is described and illustrated in Patrick V. Kirch and Thérèse I. Babineau, Legacy of the Landscape: An Illustrated Guide to Hawaiian Archaeological Sites (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 1996).
148. Michael Kolb reported his excavations at Pi'ilanihale in "Monumental Grandeur and Political Florescence in Pre-Contact Hawai'i: Excavations at Pi'ilanihale Heiau, Maui," Archaeology in Oceania, 34 (1999): 73-82.
149. For the story of the Pi'ilani line of chiefs, I follow the version given by Samuel Kamakau in Ruling Chiefs of Hawai'i (Honolulu: Kamehameha Schools Press, 1961);
150. quoted passages are from pp. 25, 27, and 28.
151. The story of the encounter with the lizard goddess Kihawahine was published by an anonymous author in the Hawaiian language newspaper Ka Nupepa Kuokoa ("Ka Moolelo o Kihapiilani," February 9, 1884).
152. A copy of this article, and a manuscript translation by Hal Wright, were among the papers of the late Charles Pili Ke'au of Maui. I am grateful to Ke'au's daughter Bernice for providing me with copies of these documents, which add a fascinating coda to the mo'olelo of Kiha-a-Pi'ilani.
153. The quote from Samuel Kamakau is from The Works of the People of Old, Na Hana o ka Po'e Kahiko, Bishop Museum Special Publication, no. 61 (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1976), p. 129.
154. My study of the Kahikinui heiau and their orientations is presented in Patrick V. Kirch, "Temple Sites in Kahikinui, Maui, Hawaiian Islands: Their Orientations Decoded," Antiquity, 78 (2004): 102-14.
155. The results of the coral dating study are published in Patrick V. Kirch and Warren D. Sharp, "Coral 230Th Dating of the Imposition of a Ritual Control Hierarchy in Precontact Hawaii," Science, 307 (2004): 102-04.
156. Bruce G. Trigger, Understanding Early Civilizations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003).
157. The David Malo quotes are from Hawaiian Antiquities, Bishop Museum Special Publication, no. 2 (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1951), pp. 57 and 60.
158. Samwell's description of the Hawaiian feather cloaks is taken from J.C. Beaglehole, ed., The Journals of Captain James Cook: The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery, 1776-1780, 2 vols. (Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, Cambridge University Press, 1967), p. 1179.
159. Adrienne Kaeppler, "Polynesia and Micronesia," In A. L. Kaeppler, C. Kaufmann, and D. Newton, eds., Oceanic Art (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1997), pp. 21-155.
160. Lilikala Kame'eleihiwa, Native Land and Foreign Desires (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1992).
161. William H. Davenport, Pi'o: An Enquiry into the Marriage of Brothers and Sisters and Other Close Relatives in Old Hawai'i (New York: University Press of America, 1994).
162. Samuel Kamakau, Ka Po'e Kahiko: The People of Old, trans. M. K. Pukui, Bernice P. Bishop Museum Special Publication, no. 51 (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1964), p.4.
163. The lines of the chant are from Abraham Fornander, Fornander Collection of Hawaiian Antiquities and Folk-Lore, Bernice P. Bishop Museum Memoirs, vol. 6, pt. 3 (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1920), pp. 393-94.
164. Irving Goldman, Ancient Polynesian Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970), quoted passage is from pp. 544-45.
165. Patrick Vinton Kirch, How Chiefs Became Kings: Divine Kingship and the Rise of Archaic States in Ancient Hawai'i (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010).
166. Ernst Mayr, This Is Biology: The Science of the Living World (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997), quoted passage is from p. 67.
167. E. DeMarrais, L.J. Castillo, and T. Earle, "Ideology, Materialization and Power Strategies," Current Anthropology, 37 (1996): 15-31.
168. Colin Renfrew, "Introduction: Peer Polity Interaction and Socio-political Change," in C. Renfrew and J. Cherry, eds., Peer Polity Interaction and Socio-Political Change (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), pp. 1-18.
169. David Malo's account of the Makahiki is given in Hawaiian Antiquities, Bernice P. Bishop Museum Special Publication, no. 2 (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1951);
170. the quote is from p. 142. Samuel Kamakau describes the Makahiki and procession of the Lono god in Ka Po'e Kahiko: The People of Old (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1964), p. 21.
171. The political histories of kingly succession and wars of territorial conquest given in this chapter draw from Samuel Kamakau's Ruling Chiefs of Hawai'i (Honolulu: Kamehameha Schools Press, 1961);
172. quoted passages are from pp. 46, 70-71 and 72, supplemented by Abraham Fornander, An Account of the Polynesian Race, 3 vols. (London: Trübner, 1878-85), vol. 2.
173. The agricultural field system of Kaupo, along with its great temples, is described in P.V. Kirch, J. Holson, and A. Baer, "Intensive Dryland Agriculture in Kaupo, Maui, Hawaiian Islands," Asian Perspectives, 48 (2010): 265-90.
174. The Kawela archaeological survey on Moloka'i is reported in Marshall I. Weisler and Patrick V. Kirch, "The Structure of Settlement Space in a Polynesian Chiefdom: Kawela, Moloka'i, Hawaiian Islands," New Zealand Journal of Archaeology, 7 (1985): 129-58.
175. The main sources for Kalani'opu'u's wars against Kahekili are Abraham Fornander's An Account of the Polynesian Race, 3 vols. (London: Trübner,1878-85), vol. 2, and Samuel Kamakau's Ruling Chiefs of Hawai'i (Honolulu: Kamehameha Schools Press, 1961);
176. quoted passages from pp. 85, 88, 98 and 102-03.
177. Additional details, especially of the warrior Kekuhaupi'o, are given by Stephen L. Desha, Kamehameha and His Warrior Kekuhaupi'o (Honolulu: Kamehameha Schools Press, 2000).
178. All quotes from the journals of Captain James Cook and Lieutenant James King are from J.C. Beaglehole, ed., The Journals of Captain James Cook: The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery, 1776-1780 (Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, Cambridge University Press, 1967)
179. quoted passages are from pp. 473-74, 475, 476, 478 n. 1, 499, 503-07, 512, 517, 521, 528, 551, 560-61.
180. The most complete summary of the Makahiki rituals is provided by Valerio Valeri in Kingship and Sacrifice: Ritual and Society in Ancient Hawaii (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985).
181. Accounts of the Makahiki rituals are also given by David Malo, Hawaiian Antiquities (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1951), by John Papa 'I'i, Fragments of Hawaiian History (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1959), pp. 70-77
182. Samuel Kamakau, Ka Po'e Kahiko (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1964), quoted passage from pp. 20-21.
183. The quoted passage from Kelou Kamakau is from Abraham Fornander, Fornander Collection of Hawaiian Antiquities and Folk-Lore, Bernice P. Bishop Museum Memoirs, vol. 6, pt. 1 (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1919), p. 42.
184. The interpretation of Captain Cook as the returning god Lono, put forward convincingly by Sahlins but also supported by the Native Hawaiian traditions, spurred a major debate in late twentieth-century anthropology between Marshall Sahlins and Gananath Obeyesekere.
185. The quote from Marshall Sahlins is from How "Natives" Think: About Captain Cook for Example (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), p. 55.
186. Sahlins also analyzes Cook's encounter with the Hawaiians in Historical Metaphors and Mythical Realities: Structure in the Early History of the Sandwich Islands Kingdom (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1981).
187. Gananath Obeyesekere's critique of Sahlins's interpretation of Cook as Lono is presented in The Apotheosis of Captain Cook (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992);
188. Arguments are extensively refuted by Sahlins in How "Natives" Think. The William Ellis quote is from the Journal of William Ellis: Narrative of a Tour of Hawaii, or Owhyhee (repr. Honolulu: Advertiser Publishing Company, 1963 [orig. 1827]), p. 87.
189. The history of Kamehameha and his rise to power has been recounted in numerous books. Kamakau's Ruling Chiefs of Hawai'i (Honolulu: Kamehameha Schools Press, 1961)
190. remains an authoritative source from the Hawaiian point of view quoted passages are from pp. 121, 128, 132, and 150.
191. Stephen L. Desha's Kamehameha and His Warrior Kekuhaupi'o (Honolulu: Kamehameha Schools Press, 2000) adds many details not in Kamakau, but some of these may be later embellishments;
192. quoted passages are from pp. 85 and 109. Volume 2 of Abraham Fornander's Account of the Polynesian Race, 3 vols. (London: Trübner, 1878-85)-the quotation regarding Keawemauhili is from p.also summarizes the main events. I have drawn on all of these in my rendition of the story.
193. The accounts vary about the exact manner of Kiwala'o's death. Desha (p. 136) says that Ke'eaumoku disemboweled him, whereas Kamakau (p. 121)
194. Fornander (p. 310) write that Ke'eaumoku slit his throat with the lei o mano.
195. The quote from Lieutenant King describing Kamehameha is from J.C. Beaglehole, ed., The Journals of Captain James Cook: The Voyage of the Resolution and Discovery, 1776-1780 (Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, Cambridge University Press, 1967), pp. 512-13.
196. For specific dates and actions of the earliest European ships in Hawai'i
197. Ralph S. Kuykendall, The Hawaiian Kingdom, vol. 1: 1778-1854, Foundation and Transformation (Honolulu: University Press of Hawai'i, 1938).
198. Peter H. Buck, Explorers of the Pacific (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1953) also provides a useful summary of early European voyages to Hawai'i. The quote "a magnanimous monarch . . . " is from Marshall Sahlins, Historical Ethnography, vol. 1 of
199. Patrick V. Kirch and Marshall Sahlins, Anahulu: The Anthropology of History in the Kingdom of Hawai'i (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 42.
200. Robert Carneiro's circumscription theory was outlined in his classic paper, "A Theory of the Origin of the State," Science, 169 (1970): 733-38.
201. Charles Spencer and Else Redmond's ideas about social evolution are summarized in "Primary State Formation in Mesoamerica," Annual Review of Anthropology, 33 (2004): 173-99.
202. The theory of peer polity interaction is discussed from various perspectives in Colin Renfrew and John Cherry, eds., Peer Polity Interaction and Socio-Political Change (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986).
203. William Rathje outlined his trade model for the development of Maya civilization in "Praise the Gods and Pass the Metates: A Hypothesis of the Development of Lowland Rainforest Civilizations in Mesoamerica," in M.P. Leone, ed., Contemporary Archaeology (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1972), pp. 365-92.
204. David Webster, "Warfare and the Evolution of the State: A Reconsideration," American Antiquity, 40 (1975): 464-70.
205. Timothy Earle's comparison of Hawai'i, Peru, and Denmark can be found in his book How Chiefs Come to Power: The Political Economy in Prehistory (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1997).
206. Joyce Marcus and Kent V. Flannery trace the long-term evolution of Mesoamerican society in Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley (London: Thames and Hudson, 1996).