Strengthening ambition for climate mitigation: The role of the montreal protocol in reducing short-lived climate pollutants

Review of European Community and International Environmental Law

Volumn 21, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 231-242

  Zaelke, Durwood ^a   Andersen, Stephen O ^b   Borgford Parnell, Nathan ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b IGSD ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CARBON EMISSION; CLIMATE EFFECT; ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; GLOBAL WARMING; HYDROFLUOROCARBON; MONTREAL PROTOCOL; POLLUTANT;

ARCTIC;

EID: 84870203760     PISSN: 09628797     EISSN: 14679388     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/reel.12010     Document Type: Article

References (178)

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36. See V. Ramanathan and Y. Xu, n. 2 above.
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38. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (New York, 9 May 1992; in force 21 March 1994) ('UNFCCC'), Article 2.
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40. Decision 2/CP.15, Copenhagen Accord (UN Doc. FCCC/CP/2009/ 11/Add.1, 30 March 2010), at paragraph 2.
41. Decision 1/CP.16, n. 20 above, at 3.
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45. Decision 1/CP.16, n. 20 above, at 3.
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47. See J. Hansen et al., n. 25 above.
48. 2 (June 2012), found at: .
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50. V. Ramanathan and Y. Xu, n. 2 above.
51. Decision 1/CP.17, Establishment of an Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action (UN Doc. FCCC/CP/2011/ 9/Add.1, 15 March 2012), at paragraph 4. It should be noted that the EU has agreed in principle to a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol.
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53. See UNEP, n. 21 above, at 10.
54. Ibid;., at 16.
55. Ibid;., at 14.
56. Ibid;., at 10.
57. International Energy Agency (IEA), World Energy Outlook: Executive Summary (IEA, 2011), found at: , at 205.
58. Ibid;.
59. See also N.P. Myhrvold and K. Caldeira, 'Greenhouse Gases, Climate Change and the Transition from Coal to Low-carbon Electricity, 7:014019 Environmental Research Letters (2012, forthcoming).
60. See G.J.M. Velders et al., 'The Importance of the Montreal Protocol in Protecting Climate', 104:12 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (2007), at Table 1.
61. See V. Ramanathan and Y. Xu, n. 2 above, at 8061.
62. S.O. Andersen and K.M. Sarma, Protecting the Ozone Layer: The United Nations History (Earthscan, 2002), at 59-60.
63. UNEP Ozone Secretariat, Key Achievements of the Montreal Protocol to Date (UNEP, 2012), found at: ;
64. UNEP, Handbook for the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, 9th edn (UNEP, 2012), at 310-426.
65. Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (Montreal, 16 September 1987; in force 1 January 1989) ('Montreal Protocol'), Article 5.
66. Ibid;., Article 10.
67. See also S.O. Andersen, K.M. Sarma and K.N. Taddonio, Technology Transfer for the Ozone Layer: Lessons for Climate Change (Earthscan, 2007);
68. K.M. Sarma, S.O. Andersen, D. Zaelke and K.N. Taddonio, 'Ozone Layer, International Protection' in: R. Wolfrum (ed.), Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (Oxford University Press, 2012), online edition, found at: ;
69. D. Hunter, J. Salzman and D. Zaelke, International Environmental Law and Policy, 4th edn (Foundation Press, 2011), at 544, 578.
70. See, generally, R.E. Benedick, Ozone Diplomacy: New Directions in Safeguarding the Planet (Harvard University Press, 1991);
71. S.O. Andersen and K.M. Sarma, n. 37 above;
72. S.O. Andersen, K.M. Sarma and K.N. Taddonio, n. 40 above.
73. 2 remains in the atmosphere for millennia).
74. G.J.M. Velders et al., 'The Large Contribution of Projected HFC Emissions to Future Climate Forcing', 106:26 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (2009) at 10949;
75. UNEP, HFCs: A Critical Link in Protecting Climate and the Ozone Layer (UNEP, 2011), at 10;
76. UNEP and WMO, n. 1 above, at 5, 15.
77. Ozone is created by ozone precursors including methane, carbon monoxide and volatile organic compounds. Methane is responsible for approximately 50% of ozone production so controlling methane will have a significant effect on ozone concentrations. As reported by D. Shindell et al., 'Simultaneously Mitigating Near-term Climate Change and Improving Human Health and Food Security', 335:6065 Science (2012), 183.
78. See also V. Ramanathan and Y. Xu, n. 2 above.
79. See D. Shindell et al., n. 44 above, at 184.
80. Institute for Advanced Sustainability Studies, 'Short Lived Climate Forcers: Pathways to Action - Summary' (20 March 2012). Cf. V. Ramanathan and Y. Xu, n. 2 above;
81. G.J.M. Velders et al., 'The Large Contribution of Projected HFC Emissions to Future Climate Forcing', 106:26 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (2009), 10949.
82. The UNEP/WMO integrated assessment calculates that a combination of 14 mitigation measures - seven targeting emissions of methane and seven targeting emissions of black carbon - are capable of reducing global methane emissions by approximately 38% and emissions of black carbon by approximately 77%. See UNEP, Near-term Climate Protection and Clean Air Benefits: Actions for Controlling Short-lived Climate Forcers (UNEP, 2011), at 9-10. In all, these measures could realize 'nearly 90% of the maximum reduction in net GWP' from these sources.
83. See D. Shindell et al., n. 44 above, at 183.
84. 2 emission standards and fuel economy CAFE standards by employing HFC alternative refrigerants in mobile air conditioning systems for model year 2012-2016 vehicles.
85. See United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 'Office of Transportation and Air Quality, EPA and NHTSA Finalize Historic National Program to Reduce Greenhouse Gases and Improve Fuel Economy for Cars and Trucks' (April 2010), found at: . There are many other examples including: creating national databases of equipment containing HFCs in Hungary, Slovenia and Estonia; mandatory refrigerant leakage checks for mobile equipment in Germany, Sweden and the Netherlands; and producer responsibility schemes requiring producers and suppliers of HFCs to take back recovered bulk HFCs for further recycling, reclamation and destruction in Sweden and Germany.
86. See W. Schwarz et al., Preparatory Study for a Review of Regulation (EC) No 842/2006 on Certain Fluorinated Greenhouse Gases: Final Report (European Commission, 2011), found at: .
87. See UNEP, n. 43 above, at 10.
88. See S.O. Andersen, K.M. Sarma and K.N. Taddonio, n. 40 above.
89. Ibid;.
90. See G.J.M. Velders et al., n. 46 above.
91. G.J.M. Velders et al., 'Preserving Montreal Protocol Climate Benefits by Limiting HFCs', 335:6071 Science (2012), 922, at 923.
92. Ibid;.;
93. G.J.M. Velders et al., n. 46 above.
94. See G.J.M. Velders et al., n. 46 above;
95. UNEP and WMO, n. 1 above.
96. HFC-23 is an ODS refrigerant with several different applications. HFC-23 is formed at the reactor stage during the manufacturing of HCFC-22. While the Montreal Protocol will eventually phase out the direct use of HCFC-22, its use as a feedstock currently escapes regulation under the Protocol, potentially causing global emissions of HFC-23 to increase as well, though not as rapidly as other HFCs. Unlike other HFCs, HFC-23 has a longer atmospheric lifetime of 270 years and a high 100-year GWP of 14,800. See Technology and Economic Assessment Panel (TEAP), Task Force Decision XX/8 Report: Assessment of Alternatives to HCFCs and Update of the 2005 TEAP Supplemental Report Data (TEAP, 2009);
97. G.J.M. Velders et al., n. 46 above, at 10949.
98. Allowing credits from the destruction of HFC-23 has created a perverse incentive to continue to produce HCFC-22. For more information, see Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA), HFC-23 Offsets in the Context of the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (EIA, 2010), found at: .
99. WMO, Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2010, Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project (WMO, 2011);
100. G.J.M. Velders et al., n. 46 above.
101. See WMO, n. 57 above, at 2.
102. US EPA, Inventory of US Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2010 (EPA, 2012), at 4-70, ES-4.
103. See G.J.M. Velders et al., n. 46 above;
104. G.J.M. Velders et al., n. 53 above.
105. Increases in greenhouse gas emissions in the United States between 2009 and 2010 are partly due to warming temperatures increasing demand for air conditioning. See US EPA, n. 59 above. World sales of air conditioning in 2011 were 13% higher than in 2010.
106. See S. Cox, 'Cooling a Warming Planet: A Global Air Conditioning Surge', Yale Environment (10 July 2012), 360, found at: .
107. See also G. DePaula and R.O. Mendelsohn, 'Development and the Impact of Climate Change on Energy Demand: Evidence from Brazil', 1:3 Climate Change Economics (2010), 187.
108. See UNEP, OzonAction, HCFC Phase Out: Convenient Opportunity to Safeguard the Ozone Layer and Climate (UNEP, 2008), at 6.
109. M. Sivak, 'Potential Energy Demand for Cooling in the 50 Largest Metropolitan Areas of the World', 37:4 Energy Policy (2009), 1382, at 1383.
110. See G.J.M. Velders et al., n. 53 above, at 922.
111. Ibid;.
112. Ibid;.
113. Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (Kyoto, 11 December 1997; in force 16 February 2005) ('Kyoto Protocol'), Annex A.
114. See n. 56 above.
115. 2- eq. basis. See Pew Center on Global Climate Change, Clean Development Mechanism Backgrounder: October 2008 Status Report (Pew Center, 2008), at 8.
116. See UNFCCC CDM Methodologies Panel, Forty-ninth Meeting Report: Note on the Revision of AM001 (June 2011), found at: ;
117. European Commission Press Release, 'Emissions Trading: Commission Welcomes Vote to Ban Certain Industrial Gas Credits' (21 January 2011), found at: ;
118. Government of New Zealand Press Release, 'Industrial Gas Units Banned from New Zealand's ETS' (22 December 2011), found at: ;
119. Australian Government Clean Energy Regulator, Carbon Pricing Mechanism: Eligible Emissions Units, found at: .
120. TEAP, The Implications of the Montreal Protocol of the Inclusion of HFCs and PFCs in the Kyoto Protocol (TEAP, 1999) at 11.
121. See Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention, Negotiation Text (UN Doc. FCCC/AWGLCA/ 2009/8, 19 May 2009), at paragraph 55 (discussing legally binding mitigation commitments for developed countries) and paragraphs 70-73 (discussing nationally appropriate mitigation actions for developing countries).
122. See also Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol, A Text on Other Issues Outlined in Document FCCC/KP/AWG/2008/8 (UN Doc.FCCC/KP/AWG/2009/8, 14 May 2009).
123. See Carbon Finance, Cost-effectiveness of CDM Projects (18 November 2008), found at: .
124. See S.O. Andersen, K.M. Sarma and K.N. Taddonio, n. 40 above;
125. R. Picolotti, 'Our Planet: An Equitable Arrangement' (2011), found at: .
126. See R. Picolotti, n. 75 above; Montreal Protocol, n. 39 above, Articles 2 (discussing control measures), 2A (discussing CFCs), 2F (discussing Hydrochlorofluorocarbons) and 5 (discussing the special situation of developing countries).
127. See M. Molina et al., n. 2 above.
128. V. Ramanathan, 'Greenhouse Effect Due to Chlorofluorocarbons: Climatic Implications', 190 Science (1975), 50.
129. K.A. Annan, Report of the Secretary-General, We the Peoples: The Role of the United Nations in the 21st Century (United Nations, 2000), found at: , at 56.
130. See also UNEP, Global Environment Outlook 5: Environment for the Future We Want (UNEP, 2012), at 464;
131. G.J.M. Velders et al., n. 53 above.
132. 2 to increase by the same amount as the radiative forcing of ozone depleting substances would have been by 2010. See G.J.M. Velders et al., n. 35 above;
133. G.J.M. Velders et al., n. 53 above.
134. See G.J.M. Velders et al., n. 35 above;
135. G.J.M. Velders et al., n. 4 above;
136. UNEP, The Montreal Protocol and the Green Economy: Assessing the Contributions and Co-benefits of a Multilateral Environmental Agreement (UNEP, 2012), at 53.
137. Ibid;.
138. See UNEP, n. 43 above, at 18.
139. See, generally, S.O. Andersen, K.M. Sarma and K.N. Taddonio, n. 40 above;
140. S.O. Andersen and K.M. Sarma, n. 36 above.
141. See also K.M. Sarma et al., n. 37 above;
142. D. Hunter, J. Salzman and D. Zaelke, n. 40 above.
143. See M. Molina et al., n. 2 above.
144. Report of the Sixty-Fifth Meeting of the Executive Committee of the Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol (UN Doc. UNEP/OzL.Pro/ExCom/65/60/Corr.1, 13 January 2012), Annex 1, at 1.
145. See M. Molina et al., n. 2 above.
146. Ibid;.
147. R. Shende, Convenient Opportunity to Address an Inconvenient Truth (September 2008), found at: .
148. See also Speech by Rajendra Shende Chief of Energy and OzonAction at UNEP Division of Technology, Industry and Economics (Washington, DC, 2009), found at: .
149. Montreal Protocol, n. 39 above, Articles 2H and 5.
150. UNEP, 'Compliance Assistance Programme: Regional Networks of National Ozone Units' (October 2011), found at: .
151. See M. Molina et al., n. 2 above.
152. See, generally, S.O. Andersen, K.M. Sarma and K.N. Taddonio, n. 40 above;
153. Ozone Secretariat, 'Assessment Panels', found at: .
154. UNEP, Proposed Amendment to the Montreal Protocol, Submitted by the Federated States of Micronesia (UN Doc. UNEP/ OzL.Pro.WG.1/32/5, 11 May 2012) ('Proposed Amendment by Micronesia');
155. UNEP, Proposed Amendment to the Montreal Protocol, Submitted by the United States, Canada and Mexico (UN Doc.UNEP/OzL.Pro.WG.1/32/6, 11 May 2012) ('Proposed Amendment by the US, Canada and Mexico').
156. Proposed Amendment by Micronesia, n. 94 above, at 9;
157. Proposed Amendment by the US, Canada and Mexico, n. 94 above, at 10.
158. See, generally, UNEP, Task Force Decision XX/8 Report: Assessment of Alternatives to HCFCs and HFCs and Update of the TEAP 2005 Supplement Report Data (UNEP, 2009), found at: ;
159. G.J.M. Velders et al., n. 53 above;
160. UNEP, TEAP 2010 Progress Report, Vol. 1 (UNEP, 2010) ('TEAP 2010 Progress Report'), found at: ;
161. UNEP, n. 43 above, at 27-33.
162. See UNEP, TEAP 2010 Progress Report, n. 96 above;
163. UNEP, n. 43 above, at 12, 28, 30.
164. UNEP, n. 43 above, at 28.
165. Ibid;., at 28;
166. D.J. Luecken et al., 'Ozone and TFA Impacts in North America from Degradation of 2,3,3,3-Tetrafluoropropene (HFO- 1234yf): A Potential Greenhouse Gas Replacement', 44:1 Environmental Science and Technology (2010), 343.
167. See UNEP, n. 43 above, at 27.
168. 2-eq. if the probability of exceeding 2°C is to be limited to approximately 25%.
169. 2-eq. from the proposed HFC phase-down represents 4-7% of the total mitigation needed by 2050, up to 8% if all HFCs are replaced by low-GWP substitutes.
170. See G.J.M. Velders et al., n. 46 above.
171. Report of the Combined Ninth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Vienna Convention on the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Twenty-third Meeting of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (UN Doc.UNEP/OzL.Pro.23/11, 8 December 2011), at paragraph 156.
172. The Bangkok Declaration can be found at UNEP, Twenty-second Meeting of the Parties, Annex III: Declaration on the Global Transition away from Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) (Bangkok, 8-12, November 2010), found at: .
173. Consumer Goods Forum, Better Lives through Better Business (29 March 2012), found at: , at 7.
174. UN Conference on Sustainable Development, Conference Declaration, The Future We Want (UN Doc. A/CONF.216/L.1, 22 June 2012), at paragraph 222.
175. Montreal Protocol, n. 39 above, Articles 2A (covering the phaseout of CFCs), 2F (covering the phase-out of Hydrofluorocarbons) and 5 (describing the phase-out grace period for developing countries).
176. UNFCCC, n. 21 above, Article 2.
177. Ibid;., Article 7.2(l).
178. Kyoto Protocol, n. 67 above, Article 2.2.