Manual of Infection Prevention and Control

Manual of Infection Prevention and Control

Volumn , Issue , 2012, Pages 1-400

  Damani, Nizam ^a,b  

^a CRAIGAVON AREA HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^b QUEEN'S UNIVERSITY BELFAST   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Cost; Healthcare Associated Infections; Healthcare Systems; Hospitalized Patients; Infection; Infection Control; Patient Safety; Quality of Care

Indexed keywords

EID: 84870008975     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199698356.001.0001     Document Type: Book

References (229)

1. Allegranzi B, Bagheri Nejad S, Combescure C, et al. Burden of endemic health-careassociated infection in developing countries: systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 2011; 377: 228-41.
2. Burnett E. Infection Prevention Society and Competency Steering Group. Outcome of competences for practitioners in infection prevention and control. Journal of Infection Prevention 2011; 12(2):67-90.
3. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. Annual Epidemiological Report on Communicable Diseases in Europe 2008. Stockholm: European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, 2008. Available at:Haley
4. RW, Culver DH, White JW, et al. The efficacy of infection surveillance and control programs in preventing nosocomial infections in US hospitals. American Journal Epidemiology 1985; 121: 182-205.
5. HICPAC Guidance on Public Reporting of Healthcare-associated infections:Recommendations of the Health care Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Infection Control Hospital Epidemiology 2005; 26(6):580-7.
6. O'Boyle C, Jackson M, Henly SJ. Staffing requirements for infection control programs in US health care facilities: Delphi project. American Journal of Infection Control 2002; 30(6):321-33.
7. Public Health Agency of Canada. Essential resources for effective infection prevention and control programs: A matter of patient safety: A discussion paper. Ottawa: Public Health Agency of Canada, 2010.
8. Scott RD. The Direct Medical costs of Healthcare-Associated Infections in U.S. Hospitals and the Benefits of Prevention. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2009.
9. UK National Audit Office. The management and control of hospital acquired infection in acute NHS Trusts in England. London: The Stationery Office, 2000.
10. Umscheid CA, Mitchell MD, Doshi JA, et al. Estimating the proportion of healthcareassociated infections that are reasonably preventable and the related mortality and costs. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 2011; 32(2):101-14.
11. WHO. Core components for infection prevention and control. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2009.
12. Bialachowski A et al. The Audit Process: Part I: Pre-preparation, Part II: Setting the audit criteria and Part III: Closing the Loop. Canadian Journal of Infection Control, 2010; Spring issue: 68-70; Summer issue:109-111 and Fall issue: 161-165.
13. CDC. Hospital Infection Control Practice Advisory Committee. Guidelines for Isolation Precautions in Hospitals. Preventing Transmission of Infectious Agents in Healthcare Settings 2007. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2007.
14. Damani NN. Risk management. In: Friedman C, Newsom W (eds). Basic Concepts of Infection Control, pp. 179-85. Portadown: International Federation in Infection Control.
15. Heymann DL. Control of communicable disease manual, 19th edn Washington, DC:American Public Health Association, 2008.
16. Ingraham J. March of the microbes: sighting the unseen. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2010.
17. Nolan T, Berwick DM. All-or-none measurement raises the bar on performance raises. Journal of the American Medical Association 2006; 295: 1168-70.
18. Roberts G. Risk management in healthcare. 2nd ed. London: Witherby & Co., 2002.
19. UK Department of Health. Using high impact interventions: Using care bundles to reduce healthcare associated infection by increasing reliability and safety. London: Department of Health, 2007. Available at:
20. APIC. Guide to the Elimination of Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infections (CAUTIs); Developing and applying facility-based prevention interventions in acute and long-term care settings, 2008 (APIC Elimination Guide Series). Washington DC: APIC Headquarters, 2008.
21. Department of Health. High Impact Intervention No 6. Urinary Catheter Care Bundle. London, Department of Health, 2007. Available at:
22. Department of Health. epic2: Guidelines for preventing infections associated with the use of short-term urethral catheters Journal of Hospital Infection 2007; 65(Suppl 1):S28-S33.
23. HICPAC/CDC. Guidelines for prevention of Catheter-associated Urinary Tract infections 2009. Atlanta, GA: CDC, 2009. Available at:
24. Hooton TM, Bradley SF, Cardenas DD, et al. IDSA Guidelines. Diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of catheter-associated urinary tract infection in adults: 2009. International Clinical Practice Guidelines from the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clinical Infectious Diseases 2010; 50: 625-63.
25. Institute of Health Improvement. Infection Prevention Bundle: Preventing Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infections, 2009. Available at:
26. Lo E, Nicolle L, Classen D, et al. Strategies to prevent catheter-associated urinary tract infections in acute care hospitals. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 2008; 29(Supplement 1): S41-S50.
27. Tenke T, Kovacs B, Bjerklund Johanse TE, et al. European and Asian guidelines on management and prevention of catheter-associated urinary tract infections. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents 2008; 31S:S68-S78.
28. Brown EM, Nathwani D. Antibiotic cycling or rotation: a systematic review of the evidence of efficacy. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 2005; 55: 6-9.
29. CDC. Management of Multidrug-Resistant Organisms in Healthcare Settings, 2006. Atlanta, GA: CDC, 2006.
30. Elek SD, Fleming RC. A new technique for the control of hospital cross-infection. Lancet 1960; ii:569-71.
31. IDSA and SHEA. Guidelines for Developing an Institutional Program to Enhance Antimicrobial Stewardship. Clinical Infectious Diseases 2007; 44: 159-77.
32. McCorry A, Damani N, Rajendran R, et al. Reducing the use of 'high-risk' antibiotics through implementation of an antibiotic stewardship programme. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacy 2010; 2: 341-4.
33. PIDAC Guideline. Best Practices for Infection Prevention and Control of Resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococci in all health care settings, 2007. Canada:Provincial Infectious Diseases Advisory Committee, 2007.
34. SHEA Guidelines. SHEA guidelines for preventing nosocomial transmission of multidrugresistant strains of Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 2003; 24: 362-86.
35. WHO. Infections control programmes to control antimicrobial resistance (WHO/CDS/CSR/DRS/2001.7). Geneva: World Health Organization, 2001.
36. Albrich WC, Harbarth S. Health-care workers: source, vector, or victim of MRSA? Lancet Infectious Disease 2008; 8: 289-301.
37. APIC. Guide to the Elimination of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Transmission in Hospital settings, 2nd edn. Washington, DC: Association for Professionals in Infection Control & Epidemiology, 2010.
38. BSAC/HIS/ICNA working Party. Guidelines for the Control and prevention of meticillinresistant Staphylococcus aureus in healthcare facilities by the joint BSAC/HIS/ICNA working party on MRSA. Journal of Hospital Infection 2006; 63(suppl 1):S1-S44.
39. CDC. Management of Multidrug-Resistant Organisms in Healthcare Settings, 2006. Atlanta: CDC, 2006.
40. DeLeo FR, Otto M, Kreiswirth BN, et al. Community-associated meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Lancet 2010; 375: 1557-68.
41. Department of Health. Screening for meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) colonisation. A strategy for NHS trusts: a summary of best practice. London: Department of Health, 2007.
42. Dutch Infection Prevention Working Party. Hospital guidelines for control of MRSA, 2007. Available at:
43. Gilpin DF, Small S, Bakkshi S, et al. Efficacy of a standard meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus decolonisation protocol in routine clinical practice. Journal of Hospital Infection 2010; 75: 93-8.
44. Health Protection Agency. Guidance on the diagnosis and management of PVL-associated Staphylococcus aureus infections (PVL-SA) in England. London: Health Protection Agency, 2008.
45. HIS Working Party Report. Guidelines for the control of glycopeptide resistant enterococci (GRE) in hospital. Journal of Hospital Infection; 2006; 62: 6-21.
46. Institute of Health Improvement. Infection Prevention Bundle: Reduce Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Infection, 2007. Available at:
47. Loveday HP, Pellowe C, Jones S, et al. A systematic review of the evidence for interventions for the prevention and control of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (1996-2004): report to the joint MRSA working party (subgroup A). Journal of Hospital Infection 2006; 63(suppl 1):S45-S70.
48. Patel R. Clinical impact of vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 2003; 51(Suppl. S3):iii13-iii21.
49. Ridwan B, Mascini E, van der Reijden N, et al. What action should be taken to prevent the spread of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in European Hospitals? British Medical Journal 2002; 324: 666-8.
50. SHEA/IDSA Practice Recommendation: Strategies to prevent Transmission of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Acute Care Hospitals. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 2008; 29(Suppl 1):S62-S80.
51. Anthony D, Harris AD, McGregor JC, et al. What infection control interventions should be undertaken to control multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacteria? Clinical Infectious Diseases 2006; 43: 857-6.
52. CDC. Guidance for control of infections with carbapenem-resistant or carbapenemaseproducing enterobacteriaceae in acute care facilities. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 2009; 58(10):256-60.
53. Karageorgopoulo DE, Falagas ME. Control and treatment of multi-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii infections. Lancet infectious Diseases 2008; 8: 751-62.
54. Kumarasamy KK, Toleman MA, Walsh TR, et al. Emergence of a new antibiotic resistance mechanism in India, Pakistan, and the UK: a molecular, biological, and epidemiological study. Lancet infectious Diseases 2010; 10: 597-602.
55. Abramson JH. Making sense of data: A self-instruction manual on the interpretation of epidemiology data, 2nd edn. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.
56. Birnbaum D, Sheps S. The merits of confidence intervals relative to hypothesis testing. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 1992; 13: 553-5.
57. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Principles of Epidemiology: An Introduction to Applied Epidemiology and Biostatistics, 2nd edn. Atlanta, GA: US Dept of Health and Human Services, 1992.
58. Freeman J, Hitchison GB. Prevalence, incidence and duration. American Journal of Epidemiology 1980; 112: 707-23.
59. Gardner MJ, Aftman DG. Confidence intervals rather than P values: estimation rather than hypothesis testing. British Medical Journal 1986; 292: 746-50.
60. Giesecke J. Modern Infectious Disease Epidemiology, 2nd edn. London: Arnold, 2002.
61. Last JM. A Dictionary of Epidemiology, 4th edn. New York, Oxford University Press, 2001.
62. Ahmed QA, Memish ZA, Allegranzi B, et al. Muslim health-care workers and alcoholbased handrubs. Lancet 2006; 367: 1025-7.
63. Allegranzi B, Memish ZA, Donaldson L, et al. Religion and culture: potential undercurrents influencing hand hygiene promotion in healthcare. American Journal of Infection Control 2009; 37: 28-34.
64. Kampf G, Loffler H. Dermatological aspects of a successful introduction and continuation of alcohol-based hand rubs for hygienic hand disinfection. Journal of Hospital Infection, 2003; 55: 1-7.
65. Lee WS, Schwarz N. Washing away postdecisional dissonance. Science 2010; 328:709.
66. Pittet D, Boyce JM. Hand hygiene and patient care: pursuing the Semmelweis legacy. Lancet Infectious Diseases 2001; April:9-20.
67. Pittet D, Allegranzi B, Sax H, et al. Evidence-based model for hand transmission during patient care and the role or improved practices. Lancet Infectious Diseases 2006; 6: 641-52.
68. Price PB: The bacteriology of normal skin: A new quantitative test applied to a study of the bacterial flora and the disinfectant action of mechanical cleansing. Journal of Infectious Diseases 1938; 63: 301-18.
69. Sax H, Allegraniz B. Uçay I, et al. 'My five moments for hand hygiene': a user-centered design approach to understand, train, monitor and report hand hygiene. Journal of Hospital Infection 2007; 67(7):9-21.
70. WHO. WHO Guidelines on Hand Hygiene in Health Care: First Global Patient Safety Challenge. Clean Care is Safer Care. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2009.
71. American Institute of Architects. Guidelines for Design and Construction of Hospital and Health Care Facilities. Washington, DC: The American Institute of Architects and the Facilities Guidelines Institute, 2010.
72. APIC. Toolkit: Construction and Renovation 3rd edn. Washington, DC: Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology, 2007.
73. Clarke RP, Reed PJ, Seal DV, et al. Ventilation conditions and air-borne bacteria and particles in the operating theatres: proposed safe economies. Journal of Hygiene 1985; 95: 325-35.
74. Department of Health. Health Technical Memorandum 03-01. Heating and ventilation systems: Specialised ventilation for healthcare premises. Part A: Design and validation.
75. Part B: Operational management and performance verification. London: The Stationery Office, 2007.
76. Hoffman P, Williams J, Stacey A, et al. Hospital Infection Society Working Party Report:Microbiological commissioning and monitoring of operating theatre suites. Journal of Hospital Infection 2002; 52: 1-28.
77. Holton J, Ridgway GL. Commissioning operating theatres. Journal of Hospital Infection 1993; 23: 153-60.
78. NHS Estates. Infection Control in the Build Environment (HFN 30). London: The Stationery Office, 2002.
79. NHS Estates. HFN 30. Infection Control in the Build Environment. Isolation facilities in acute setting (Supplement 1). London: The Stationery Office, 2005.
80. Stockley JM, Constantine CE. Association of Medical Microbiologists' New Hospital Development Project Group. Building New Hospitals: a UK perspective. Journal of Hospital Infection 2006; 62: 285-99.
81. Taylor EW, Hoffman P. Operating Theatre. In: Fraise AP, Bradley C (eds). Ayliffe's Control of Healthcare-Associated Infection - A practical handbook, pp.375-94, 5th edn. London: Edward Arnold, 2009.
82. Woodhead K, Taylor EW, Bannister G, et al. Hospital Infection Society Working Party Report: Behaviors and rituals in the operating theatre. Journal of Hospital Infection 2002; 51: 241-55.
83. Berenholtz SM, Pronovost PJ, Lipsett PA, et al. Eliminating catheter-related bloodstream infections in the intensive care unit. Critical Care Medicine 2004; 32: 2014-20.
84. CDC/Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Guidelines for the Prevention of Intravascular Catheter-Related Infections, 2011. Atlanta, GA: CDC, 2011.
85. CDC/NHSN surveillance definition of health care-associated infection and criteria for specific types of infections in the acute care setting. American Journal of Infection Control 2008; 36: 309-32.
86. Department of Health. epic2: Guidelines for preventing infections associated with the use of central venous access devices. Journal of Hospital Infection 2007; 65S:S33-S49.
87. Department of Health. High Impact Intervention No 1. Peripheral intravenous cannula care bundle and High Impact Intervention No 2. Central venous catheter care bundle. London: Department of Health, 2007. Available at:
88. HELICS. Surveillance of nosocomial infections in Intensive Care units. Hospital in Europe for Link Infection Control through Surveillance: September, 2004. Available at:
89. Institute for Healthcare Improvement. Infection Prevention Bundle: Prevent Central Line Infections, 2007. Available at:
90. Pronovost P, Needham D, Berenholtz S, et al. An intervention to decrease catheterrelated bloodstream infections in the ICU. New England Journal of Medicine 2006; 355: 2725-32.
91. Pronovost P, Goeschel CA, Colantuoni E, et al. Sustaining reductions in catheter related bloodstream infections in Michigan intensive care units: observational study. British Medical Journal 2010; 340:c309.
92. SHEA/IDSA Practice Recommendation: Strategies to Prevent Central Line-Associated Bloodstream Infections in Acute Care Hospitals. Infection Control Hospital Epidemiology 2008; 29(Suppl 1):S22-S30.
93. Timsit J-F, Schwebel C, Bouadma L, et al. Chlorhexidine-impregnated sponges and less frequent dressing changes for prevention of catheter-related infections in critically ill adults: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of American Medical Association 2009; 301(12):1231-41.
94. Arias KM. Outbreak Investigation, Prevention, and Control in Health Care Settings:Critical Issues in Patient Safety, 2nd edn. Sudbury, MA: John Bartlett Publishers, 2009.
95. Beck-Sague C, Jarvis W, Martone W. Outbreak investigations. Infection Control Hospital Epidemiology 1997; 18: 138-45.
96. Department of Health. Management of outbreaks of Food borne illness. London:Department of Health, 1994.
97. Rutala WA, Weber DJ. How to assess risk of disease transmission to patients when there is a failure to follow recommended disinfection and sterilization guidelines. Infection Control Hospital Epidemiology 2007; 28: 146-55.
98. WHO. Communicable Disease Control in emergencies: A field manual. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2005.
99. CDC/HICPAC. Guideline for isolation precautions: preventing transmission of infectious agents in healthcare settings 2007. American Journal of Infection Control, 2007; 35(10):S65-S164.
100. Medical Devices Agency. Latex Sensitization in the Health-care Setting (Use of Latex Gloves). (Device Bulletin No MDA DB 9601). London: Medical Devices Agency, 1996.
101. Pratt RJ, Pellowe CM, Wilson JA, et al. epic 2: National Evidence-based guidelines for preventing healthcare associated infections in NHS hospital in England. Journal of Hospital Infection; 2007; 65(Suppl):S1-S64.
102. WHO. WHO Guidelines on Hand Hygiene in Health Care: First Global Patient Safety Challenge. Clean Care is Safer Care. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2009.
103. WHO. Infection Prevention and Control of Epidemic-and Pandemic-prone Acute Respiratory Diseases in Health Care. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2007.
104. WHO. Infection Prevention and control during health care for confirmed, probable or suspected cases of pandemic (H1N1) 2009 virus infection and influenza like illness. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2009.
105. APIC. Guide to the Elimination of Ventilator-associated Pneumonia. 2009. Washington, DC: APIC, 2008.
106. American Thoracic Society & Infectious Diseases Society of America. Guidelines for the management of adults with hospital-acquired, ventilator-associated, and healthcareassociated pneumonia. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 2005; 171: 388-416.
107. Department of Health. High Impact Intervention No 5. Care bundle for ventilated patients (or tracheostomy where appropriate). London: Department of Health, 2007. Available at:
108. HELICS. Surveillance of nosocomial infections in Intensive Care units. Hospital in Europe for Link Infection Control through Surveillance: September, 2004. Available at:
109. Horan TC, Andrus M, Dudeck MA, et al. CDC/NHSN surveillance definition of health care-associated infection and criteria for specific types of infections in the acute care setting. American Journal of Infection Control 2008; 36: 309-32.
110. Institute of Health Improvement. Infection Prevention Bundle: Prevent Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia, 2007. Available at:
111. Masterton RG, Galloway A, French G, et al. Guidelines for the management of hospitalacquired pneumonia in the UK: Report of the Working Party on Hospital-Acquired Pneumonia of the British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 2008; 62: 5-34.
112. SHEA/IDSA. Practice recommendation: Strategies to prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia in acute care hospitals. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 2008; 29(Supp.1):S31-S40.
113. APIC. Infection Prevention Manual for long term Facilities, 2nd edn. Washington, DC:Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology, 2007.
114. CDC Guideline: Guide to infection prevention in outpatient settings: Minimum Expectations for Safe Care. Atlanta: Centre for Diseases Control and Prevention, 2011.
115. NICE guidelines. Infection control. Prevention of healthcare-associated infection in primary and community care. London: National Institute for Clinical Excellence, 2003. Available on:
116. Scottish Executive. Infection Control Standards in adult care home care: Final Standards. Edinburgh: Scottish Executive, 2005.
117. APIC. Guide to the Elimination of Clostridium difficile in healthcare settings, 2008. Washington, DC: APIC, 2008.
118. Department of Health. Clostridium difficile infection: How to deal with the problem. London: DH Publication, 2009. Available at:
119. European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID): treatment guidance document for Clostridium difficile infection (CDI). Clinical Microbiology and Infection 2009; 15(12):1067-79.
120. Health Protection agency. Regional Microbiology Network Care Bundle: A good practice guide to control Clostridium difficile, 2007. London: HPA.
121. SHEA/IDSA Guidelines: clinical practice guidelines for Clostridium difficile infection in adults: 2010 Update by the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA) and the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA). Infection Control Hospital Epidemiology 2010; 31(5):431-455.
122. SHEA/IDSA Practice Recommendation: Strategies to prevent transmission of Clostridium difficile infections in acute care hospitals. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 2008; 29 (Supplement1):S81-S92.
123. Weber DJ, Rutala WA. The role of the environment in transmission of Clostridium difficile Infection in healthcare facilities. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 2011, 32(3):207-9.
124. Boone SA, Gerba CP. Significance of fomites in the spread of respiratory and enteric viral disease. Applied and environmental microbiology, 2007; 73(6):1687-96.
125. CDC. Updated norovirus outbreak management and disease prevention guidelines. Morbidity and Mortality Reports 2011; 60(3):1-16.
126. Chadwick PR, Beards G, Brown D, et al. Management of hospital outbreaks of gastro-enteritis due to small round structured viruses. Journal of Hospital Infection 2000; 45: 1-10.
127. Department of Health. Food Handlers: Fitness to Work. London: Department of Health, 1995.
128. Department of Health. Management of outbreaks of foodborne illness. London: Department of Health, 1994.
129. Health Protection Agency. Guidance on Infection Control in Schools and other Child Care Settings. London:HPA, 2010.
130. PHLS Advisory Committee on Gastrointestinal Infections. Preventing person to person spread following gastrointestinal infection: guidance to public health physician and environmental offices. Communicable Disease and Public Health 2004; 7(4):362-84.
131. Department of Health. Health clearance for tuberculosis, Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C and HIV: New healthcare workers. London: Department of Health, 2007.
132. European Study Group: Occupational Post-Exposure Prophylaxis Study Group: Towards a standard HIV postexposure prophylaxis for health care workers in Europe. Euro surveillance 2004; 9: 40-3.
133. Report of joint working party of the Hospital Infection Society and the Surgical Infection Study Group. Risks to surgeons and patients from HIV and Hepatitis: Guidelines on precautions and management of exposure to blood or body fluids. British Medical Journal 1992; 305: 1337-43.
134. SHEA. Guideline for management of healthcare workers who are infected with Hepatitis B virus, Hepatitis C virus, and/or Human immunodeficiency virus. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 2010;31(3):203-232.
135. WHO. Preventing Mother-to-child transmission of hepatitis. Manila (Western Pacific Region); World Health Organization, 2006.
136. CDC. Guidelines for preventing the transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in health-care settings, 2005. Mortality and Morbidity Review 2005; 54(RR-17):1-141.
137. Crofton J, Chaulet P, Maher D. Guidelines for the management of drug-resistant tuberculosis. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1997.
138. Department of Health. Health clearance for tuberculosis, Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C and HIV: New health care workers. London: Department of Health, 2007.
139. HPSC. Guidelines on the Prevention and Control of Tuberculosis in Ireland 2010. Dublin: Health Protection Surveillance Centre, 2010.
140. Jacobson AC. Genius: Some Revaluations. Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press, 1970.
141. NICE. Tuberculosis: Clinical diagnosis and management of tuberculosis, and measures for its prevention and control (Clinical Guideline 117). London: National Institute of Clinical Excellence, 2011.
142. Phillips MS, Fordham von Reyn. Nosocomial infections due to non-tuberculous Mycobacteria. Clinical Infectious Diseases 2001; 33: 1363-74.
143. Sepkowitz KA. How contagious is tuberculosis? Clinical Infectious Diseases 1996; 23: 954-62.
144. WHO. WHO policy on TB infection controls in health-care facilities, congregate settings and households. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2009.
145. WHO. Guidelines for prevention and control: Tuberculosis and air travel. Geneva: World Health Organization 2007.
146. Heymann DL. Control of communicable disease manual, 19th edn. Washington DC: American Public Health Association, 2008.
147. Royal College of Physicians. Preparations for Pandemic Influenza Guidance for hospital medical specialties on management during a pandemic influenza outbreak. London: Royal College of Physicians, 2009.
148. WHO. Pandemic Influenza Preparedness and Response. Geneva: WHO, 2009.
149. WHO. Hospital Infection control guidance for severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). Geneva: WHO, 2003.
150. Department of Health. Health Technical Memorandum (HTM 04-01) (Part A Design Installation and Testing and Part B Operational Management). The control of Legionella hygiene, 'Safe' hot water cold water and drinking water systems. London: The Stationery Office, 2010.
151. European Working Group for Legionella Infection. European guidelines for control and prevention of travelassociated Legionnaires' disease. London: European Working Group for Legionella Infection, 2005.
152. Fallon RJ. How to prevent an outbreak of Legionnaires' disease. Journal of Hospital Infection 1994; 27: 247-56.
153. Health Protection Agency. Guidance for the laboratory diagnosis of Legionella infections in the HPA. National Standard Method QSOP 30 Issue 3. London: Health Protection Agency, 2005.
154. Lin YE, Stout JE, Yu VL. Controlling Legionella in hospital drinking water: an evidence-based review of disinfection methods. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 2011; 32(2):166-73.
155. Public Health Laboratory Services Atypical Pneumonia Working Group. Investigating a single case of Legionnaires' disease. Communicable Disease and Public Health 2002; 5(2):157-62.
156. Sabria M, Yu VL. Hospital-acquired legionellosis: solutions for a preventable infection. The Lancet Infectious Diseases 2000; 2: 368-73.
157. Risa Risa KJ, Stout JE, Muder RR. Intermittent flushing of outlets improved control of Legionella colonization in a hospital hot water system treated by CU/Ag ionization. In: Program and abstracts of the 47th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; September 12-16, 2007; Chicago, IL.
158. WHO. Legionella and the prevention of legionellosis. Geneva: WHO, 2007.
159. Department of Health Immunization against infectious diseases. London: The Stationery Office, 2006. Please go to the UK Department of Health website () for updates and additions since 2006.
160. Health Protection Agency. Guidance for public health management of meningococcal disease in the UK. London: Health Protection Agency, 2011.
161. NICE. Bacterial meningitis and meningococcal septicaemia. Management of bacterial meningitis and meningococcal septicaemia in children and young people younger than 16 years in primary and secondary care (Clinical Guideline 102). London: National Institute of Clinical Excellence, 2010.
162. Tunbridge AJ, Breuer J, Jeffery KJM. Chickenpox in adults: Clinical management. Journal of Infection 2008; 57: 95-102.
163. Department of Health. Immunization against infectious diseases. London: The Stationery Office, 2006. Visit regular updates and additions since 2006.
164. Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Chickenpox in pregnancy (Guideline No. 13). London: Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists, 2001.
165. Management of patients with suspected viral haemorrhagic fever. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 1988; 37(Suppl):1-16.
166. Notice to Readers Update: Management of patients with suspected viral haemorrhagic fever-United States. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 1995; 44(25):475-9.
167. UK Advisory Committee on Dangerous Pathogens. Management and control of viral haemorrhagic fevers. London: The Stationery Office, 1996.
168. WHO and CDC: Infection control for viral haemorrhagic fevers the African health care setting. Geneva: WHO, 1998.
169. Department of Health. ACDP Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathy Risk Management Subgroup recommendations. London: Department of Health, 2011. Available at:
170. NICE. Patient safety and reduction of risk of transmission of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) via interventional procedures (Guideline 106). London: National Institute of Clinical Excellence, 2006.
171. Bouvresse S, Chosidow O. Scabies in healthcare settings. Current Opinion in Infectious 2010; 23: 111-18.
172. Lettau LA. Nosocomial transmission and infection control aspects of parasitic and ectoparasitic disease. Part I. Introduction/Enteric Parasites. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 1991; 12: 59-65.
173. Lettau LA. Nosocomial transmission and infection control aspects of parasitic and ectoparasitic diseases. Part II. Blood and Tissue Parasites. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 1991; 12: 111-21.
174. Lettau LA. Nosocomial transmission and infection control aspects of parasitic and ectoparasitic disease. Part III. Ectoparasites/Summary and conclusions. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 1991; 12: 179-85.
175. Crowcroft NS, Roth CE, Cohen BJ, et al. Guidance for control of parvovirus B19 infection in health care settings and the community. Journal of Public Health Medicine 1999; 21(40):439-46.
176. Department of Health. Immunization against infectious disease - 'The Green Book'. London:
177. Department of Health, 2006. Access website for regular update:Department of Health. Health clearance for tuberculosis, hepatitis B, hepatitis C and HIV: New healthcare workers. London: Department of Health, 2007.
178. Health Protection Agency. Guidance on Viral Rash in Pregnancy. Investigation, Diagnosis and Management of Viral Rash Illness, or Exposure to Viral Rash Illness in Pregnancy. London, Health Protection Agency, 2011.
179. Henderson DK, Dembry L, Fishman NO, et al. SHEA Guideline for management of healthcare workers who are infected with hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, and/or human immunodeficiency virus. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 2010; 31(3):203-32.
180. Herwaldt LA, Pottinger JM, Carter CD, et al. Exposure workshops. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 1997; 18: 850-71.
181. NICE Guidelines 33. Tuberculosis: Clinical diagnosis and management of tuberculosis, and measures for its prevention and control London: National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence, 2011. Access website for regular update:.
182. PHLS Hepatitis Subcommittee. Communicable Disease Review 1992; 2:R97-R101.
183. SHEA Guideline for management of healthcare workers who are infected with Hepatitis B virus, Hepatitis C virus, and/or Human immunodeficiency virus. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 2010;31(3):203-232.
184. CDC/HICPAC. Guidelines for environmental infection control in health-care facilities:recommendations of CDC and the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 2003; 52(RR-10):1-48.
185. Department of Health. Health Technical Memorandum 07-01: Safe management of healthcare waste. London: Department of Health, 2011.
186. Hoffman P. Laundry, kitchens and healthcare waste. In: Fraise AP, Bradley C (eds). Ayliffe's Control of Healthcare-associated Infection, 3rd edn, pp.150-68. London:Hodder Arnold, 2009.
187. Barrie D. The provision of food and catering services in hospital. Journal of Hospital Infection 1996; 33: 13-33.
188. CDC/HICPAC. Guidelines for environmental infection control in healthcare facilities:recommendations of CDC and the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 2003; 52(RR-10):1-48.
189. Department of Health. Chilled and Frozen. Guidelines on Cook-Chill and Cook-Freeze Catering systems. London: HMSO, 1989.
190. Department of Health. Food Handlers: Fitness to Work. London: Department of Health, 1995.
191. Hoffman P. Laundry, kitchens and healthcare waste. In: Fraise AP, Bradley C (eds). Ayliffe's Control of Healthcare-associated Infection, 3rd edn, pp.150-68. London:Hodder Arnold, 2009.
192. Hoffman P. Disinfection and cleaning. In: McLauchlin J, Little C (eds). Hobbs' Food Poisoning and Food Hygiene. 7th edn, pp.233-44. London: Hodder Arnold, 2007.
193. McLauchlin J, Little C (eds). Hobbs' Food Poisoning and Food Hygiene, 7th edn. London:Edward Arnold, 2007.
194. WHO. Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point Evaluation. A guide to identifying hazards and assessing risks associated with food preparation and storage. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1992.
195. Barrie D. How hospital linen and laundry services are provided. Journal of Hospital Infection 1994; 27: 219-39.
196. British Standards Institution. EN 14065:2002. Textiles - laundry processed textilesbiocontamination control system. Milton Keynes: British Standards Institution, 2002.
197. Department of Health. Uniforms and workwear. Guidance on uniform and workwear policies for NHS employers. London: Department of Health, 2010.
198. NHS Executive. HSG (95)18. Hospital laundry arrangements for used and infected linen. London: NHSE, 1995.
199. Patel SN, Murray-Leonard J, Wilson AP. Laundering of hospital staff uniforms at home. Journal of Hospital Infection 2006; 62: 89-93.
200. Wilson JA, Loveday HP, Hoffman PN, et al. Uniform: an evidence review of the microbiological significance of uniforms and uniform policy in the prevention and control of healthcare-associated infections. Report to the Dept. of Health. Journal of Hospital Infection 2007; 66: 301-7.
201. Healing TD, Hoffman PN, Young SE. The infection hazards of human cadavers. Communicable Diseases Reviews 1995; 5(5):R61-68. With corrections published in CDR Review 5(6):R92.
202. Health & Safety Executive. Safe working and the prevention of infection in the mortuary and post-mortem room, 2nd edn. Norwich: HSE, 2003.
203. Health & Safety Executive. Controlling the risks of infection at work from human remains. A guide for those involved in funeral services (including embalmers) and those involved in exhumation. Norwich: HSE, 2005.
204. Hoffman PN, Healing TJ, Young SEJ. The infection hazards of human cadavers. In: Wenzel R, Brewer T and Butzler J-P (eds) A Guide to Infection Control in the Hospital. 3rd edn. Boston, MA: International Society for Infectious Diseases, 2008.
205. Altemeier WA, Culbertson WR. Surgical infection. In: Moyer CA, Rhoads JE, Allen JG, et al. (eds) Surgery, Principles and Practice, 3rd edn, pp. 51-77. Philadelphia, PA: JB Lippincott, 1965.
206. APIC. Guide for the prevention of Mediastinitis Surgical Site Infections following Cardiac Surgery. Washington, DC: APIC, 2008.
207. CDC. Guideline for prevention of surgical site infection, 1999. Infection Control Hospital Epidemiology 1999; 20: 247-80.
208. Classen DC, Evans RS, Pestotnik SL, et al. The timing of prophylactic administration of antibiotics and the risk of surgical-wound infection. New England Journal of Medicine 1992; 326: 281-6.
209. Darouiche RO, Wall MJ Jr, Itani KM, et al. Chlorhexidine-alcohol versus povidone-iodine for surgical-site antisepsis. New England Journal of Medicine 2010; 362(1):18-26.
210. Gaynes RP, Culver DH, Horan TC, et al. Surgical site infection (SSI) rates in the United States, 1992-1998: the NNIS basic risk index. Clinical Infectious Diseases 2001; 33(Suppl 2): S69-S77.
211. Institute of Health Improvement. Bundle Prevent Surgical Site Infections, 2007. Available at:
212. Horan TC, Andrus M, Dudeck MA. CDC/NHSN surveillance definition of health careassociated infection and criteria for specific types of infections in the acute care setting. American Journal of Infection Control 2008; 36: 309-32.
213. Hospital Infection Society. Behaviours and rituals in the operating theatre. Journal of Hospital Infection 2002; 51: 241-55.
214. Mangram AJ, Horan TC, Pearson ML, et al. Guideline for prevention of surgical site infection, 1999. Infection Control Hospital Epidemiology 1999; 4: 250-80.
215. Labadie JC, Kampf G, Lejeune B, et al. European Guidelines. Recommendations for surgical hand disinfection-requirements, implementation and need for research. A proposal by representatives of the SFHH, DGHM and DGKH for a European discussion. Journal of Hospital Infection 2002; 51: 312-15.
216. Misteli H, Weber WP, Reck S, et al. Surgical glove perforation and the risk of surgical site infection. Archives of Surgery, 2009; 144: 553-8.
217. NICE guidelines: Surgical site infection prevention and treatment of surgical site infection. London: the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists Press, 2008.
218. SHEA/IDSA practice recommendation: Strategies to prevent surgical site infections in acute care hospitals. Infection Control Hospital Epidemiology 2008; 29(Suppl 1):S51-S6.
219. Webster J, Osborne S. Preoperative bathing or showering with skin antiseptics to prevent surgical site infection. Cochrane Database Systematic Review 2007; 2:CD004985.
220. WHO. WHO Guidelines on Hand Hygiene in Health Care: First Global Patient Safety Challenge. Clean Care is Safer Care. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2009.
221. Damani NN. Surveillance in countries with limited resources. International Journal of Infection Control 2008; 4:1 doi:10.3396/ijic.V4i1.003.08.
222. Damani NN. Simple measures save lives: an approach to infection control in countries with limited resources. Journal of Hospital Infection 2007; 65(S1):151-4.
223. Glenister HM, Taylor LJ, Bartlett CLR, et al. An evaluation of surveillance methods for detecting infections in hospital inpatients. Journal of Hospital Infection 1993; 23: 229-42.
224. Haley RW, Culver DH, White JW, et al. The efficacy of infection surveillance and control programs in preventing nosocomial infection in US hospitals. (SENIC study). American Journal of Epidemiology 1985; 121(2):182-205.
225. HELICS. Surveillance of nosocomial infections in Intensive Care units. Hospital in Europe for Link Infection Control through Surveillance: September, 2004. Available at:
226. HICPAC guidance on public reporting of healthcare-associated infections:Recommendations of the Health care Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Infection Control Hospital Epidemiology 2005; 26(6):580-7.
227. Horan TC, Andrus M, Dudeck, MA. CDC/NHSN surveillance definition of health careassociated infection and criteria for specific types of infections in the acute care setting. American Journal of Infection Control 2008; 36: 309-32.
228. Lee TB, Montgomery OG, Marx J, et al. Recommended practices for surveillance:Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology (APIC), Inc. American Journal of Infection Control 2007; 35(7):427-40.
229. Perl TM, Chaiwarith R. Surveillance: An overview. In: Practical Healthcare Epidemiology, 3rd edn, pp.111-42. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2010.