Changing frames: Identity and citizenship of new Guineans of German heritage during the interwar years

Journal of Pacific History

Volumn 47, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 347-367

  Winter, Christine ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND   (Australia)

^b AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84867820820     PISSN: 00223344     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00223344.2012.714092     Document Type: Review

References (56)

1. Albert Wendt, 'Inside us the dead', in Robert Borofsky (ed.), Remembrance of Pacific Pasts: an invitation to remake history (Honolulu 2000), 38-39.
2. See Misa Telefoni Retzlaff, 'An enduring legacy: the German influence in Samoan culture and history', available online at http://www.mcil.gov.ws/ minister-speeches/enduring-legacy-german-influence.pdf, accessed 10 July 2010.
3. See for example John Gardiner-Garden, 'The definition of Aboriginality: research note 18, 2000-01', available online at http://www.aph.gov.au/LIBRARY/ pubs/rn/2000-01/01RN18.htm, accessed 28 June 2010.
4. See also Tim Rowse, Obliged to be Difficult: Nugget Coomb's legacy in indigenous affairs (New York 2000).
5. Lora Wildenthal, German Women for Empire, 1894-1945 (Durham, NC 2001).
6. See also Dan Walther, review of German Women for Empire, 1894-1945 (Durham, NC 2001)
7. Journal of Social History, 36:4 (2003), 1073-75.
8. See especially Raul Hilberg, The Destruction of the European Jews (New Haven, CT 2003 [1961]);
9. idem, The Politics of Memory: the journey of a Holocaust historian (Chicago 1996).
10. Gesetz zum Schutz des deutschen Blutes und der deutschen Ehre (Law for the protection of German blood and German honour) is one of three laws introduced in Sept. 1935; it defined racial categories on the basis of descent (person of German blood, mixed blood of 1st and 2nd degree, and Jew) within the context of marriage prohibitions.
11. See for example N. Peterson and W. Sanders, Citizenship and Indigenous Australians: changing conceptions and possibilities (Cambridge 1998).
12. For an analysis of conflicting models of Jewishness as well as changing inclusions and exclusions of people of 'part-Jewish' descent in the German armed forces, see Bryan Mark Rigg, Hitler's Jewish Soldiers: the untold story of Nazi racial laws and men of Jewish descent in the German military (Lawrence, KS 2002).
13. See Guenter Lewy, 'Himmler and the "racially pure Gypsies"', Journal of Contemporary History, 34:2 (1999), 201-14.
14. See for example Clarence Lusane, Hitler's Black Victims: the historical experiences of Afro-Germans, European Blacks, Africans, and African Americans in the Nazi era (New York 2003).
15. Hans J. Massaquoi, Destined to Witness: growing up black in Nazi Germany (London 2001), 118-19.
16. See Karsten Linne, Deutschland jenseits desÄquators? Die NS-Kolonialplanungen für Afrika (Berlin 2008), 42-45.
17. For a biographical introduction and further literature, see Magdalene Siegloch, 'Else Klink', Forschungsstelle Kulturimpuls, available online at http://biographien.kulturimpuls.org/personen.php, accessed 5 May 2010.
18. Quoted in Uwe Werner, Anthroposophen in der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus (Munich 1999), 158.
19. See Hubert Perlinger, 'Mischehen: "Rassismus und Verkafferung" als Zeitzünder', in Allgemeine Kolonialgeschichte und Journalistisches, Traditionsverband ehemaliger Schutz- und Überseetruppen - Freunde der früheren deutschen Schutzgebiete e.V., available online at http://www.traditionsverband.de/, accessed 24 May 2010.
20. Chief of General Staff, Department of Defence, to Secretary, Department of Defence, 5 May 1920, National Archives of Australia (hereinafter NAA) A456, W6/23/17. The suggestion put forward was that no return to New Guinea be permitted. Instead, Klink and four other German men with local families should be settled in Java or an island not under British control and 'arrangements be made for their families to join them, if they so desire'. Garran as Secretary, however, recommended that Klink, 'in view of special circumstances, should be permitted to return to New Guinea'. Secretary to Department of Defence, 19 Sept. 1920, NAA A456, W6/23/17.
21. Siegloch, 'Else Klink'.
22. See Wolfgang Liedtke, 'Die Überschreitung der "colour line": Mischehen und Mischlinge in der deutschen Kolonie Samoa', in K. Geisenhainer and K. Lange (eds), Bewegliche Horizonte: Festschrift zum 60. Geburtstag von Bernhard Streck (Leipzig 2005), 283-308.
23. See for example Wildenthal, German Women for Empire, 121-29.
24. Ibid.; Malama Meleisea, The Making of Modern Samoa: traditional authority and colonial administration in the modern history of Western Samoa (Suva 1987);
25. J.W. Davidson, Samoa mo Samoa: the emergence of the independent state of Western Samoa (Melbourne 1967).
26. Cornelia Essner, "'Border-line" im Menschenblut und Struktur rassistischer Rechtsspaltung: koloniales Kaiserreich und "Drittes Reich"', in Micha Brumlik, Susanne Meinl and Werner Renz (eds), Gesetzliches Unrecht: rassistisches Recht im 20. Jahrhundert (Frankfurt 2005), 27-64.
27. Arthur Berger, Talofa: Sturm- und Sonnentage auf Samoa (Dresden 1919), 49.
28. Paul Hermann Retzlaff, born 22 July 1924, was the uncle of the Samoan politician Misa Telefoni Retzlaff
29. See Misa Telefoni Retzlaff, 'An enduring legacy'.
30. See Politisches Archiv des Auswä rtigen Amtes, Berlin (hereinafter AA), R45376.
31. For a detailed discussion and further literature, see Linne, Deutschland jenseits des Äquators?
32. For the same reasons, the Foreign Office argued from 1934 for similar exemptions from the race laws for Afro-Germans in Germany linked to former German colonies. See ibid., 42-45;
33. see also Christine Winter, 'The founding of the NSDAP stronghold in Finschhafen', in Emily Turner-Graham and Christine Winter (eds), National Socialism in Oceania: a critical evaluation of its effect and aftermath (Frankfurt 2010), 31-47.
34. For an analysis of the centrality of silence in local responses in New Guinea in regard to potential German colonial claims in 1933, see idem, "'A good-will ship": the light cruiser Köln visits Rabaul (1933)' Australian Journal of Politics and History, 54 (2008), 44-54.
35. For an analysis of the consulate's politics, see Winter, 'The founding of the NSDAP stronghold'.
36. See Walter Hellenthal, 'Politischer Bericht über das Mandatsgebiet Neuguinea', 22 Sept. 1936, AA, A4311/1, 102/6; See AA, MP1103/1, PWNG1343, PWNG1344, PWNG1145, PWNG1347.
37. See Hellenthal, 'Politischer Bericht', 8: 'While the German native policy tried to fit the developmental stage of the natives and went ahead only slowly, the Australians attempt to jump over some hundreds of years of development of the Kanakas and to treat the natives of the Mandated Territory [in a way] which would perhaps befit a highly developed Polynesian'.
38. Max Carl Schneider to Consul Hellenthal, 20 Aug. 1936, AA, A518, BG836/3.
39. Olga Janice Hedwig Krause (Leafa Wilson), 'Ich heiße Olga Hedwig Krause: Deutsche Künstlerin - My name is Olga Hedwig Krause: German artist', in Turner-Graham and Winter (eds), National Socialism in Oceania, 234-38.
40. Gary Lee's work has challenged notions of identity as an artist, curator and scholar. In 1993, he wrote a play about his great-grandparents: 'Keep him my heart: a Larrakia-Filipino love story'. He names as part of his rich heritage Larrakia, Filipino, Japanese, Scottish, Chinese and Wardaman backgrounds. See Francine Chin, 'The Lee Dynasty: a Darwin mix', Off the Leash, available online at http://theleash.com.au/2009/11/the-leedynasty-a-very-darwin-mix/, accessed 8 Nov. 2009.
41. Administrator Wisdom, Memorandum for The Secretary, Prime Minister's Department, 27 Oct. 1921, NAA, A1, 1925/4666. The following year, however, Wisdom contradicted his assumption that all half-castes had been classified as 'natives'.
42. See Administrator Wisdom, Memorandum for The Secretary, Prime Minister's Department, 21 Nov. 1922, NAA, A1, 1925/4666.
43. Administrator Wisdom to The Secretary, Prime Minister's Department, 3 Nov. 1921, NAA, A1, 1925/ 4666.
44. Administrator Wisdom to The Secretary, Prime Minister's Department, 6 May 1923, NAA, A1, 1925/4666. The Attorney-General's Department advised, however, that such a use of funds would be an infringement of the Treaty of Versailles.
45. See Secretary, Attorney-General's Department to The Secretary, Prime Minister's Department, 12 June 1923, NAA, A1, 1925/4666.
46. Administrator Wisdom to the Secretary, Prime Minister's Department, 5 Nov. 1924, NAA, A1, 1925/4666.
47. Solicitor-General to the Secretary, Department of Home and Territories, 16 Feb. 1925, NAA, A1, 1925/4666.
48. See for example Max Carl Schneider's file, NAA: MP1103/2, Q407.
49. See for example Cecilia Pflug's file, NAA, SP11/2, German/Pflug C;
50. and Philomena Hilda Matthies, NAA, SP11/2, German/Matthies PH.
51. See for example NAA, A452, 1959/4469 Luise Taligatus and Cecilia Pflug, Evacuees - Papua and New Guinea;
52. NAA A518, E840/1/1 Papua and New Guinea - Natives - General - Entry of half castes and native females into Australia.
53. Arthur Calwell to J.B. Chifley, 19 July 1949, NAA, M1455, 437. See also NAA, BP9/3, Stateless Schneider MC.
54. See Christine Winter, 'The long arm of the Third Reich: internment of New Guinea Germans in Tatura', The Journal of Pacific History, 38:1 (2003) 85-108.
55. NAA A518, E840/1/1 Papua and New Guinea - Natives - General - Entry of half castes and native females into Australia.
56. Memo Department of Immigration, 17 Apr. 1961, NAA A446, 1958/80651.