Arctic dreams and geoengineering wishes: The collateral damage of climate change

Columbia Journal of Transnational Law

Volumn 49, Issue 3, 2011, Pages 602-669

  Carlarne, Cinnamon P ^a  

^a OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 84867789504     PISSN: 00101931     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (230)

1. See Evan Lehmann, Senate Abandons Climate Effort, Dealing Blow to President, E&ENEWS. NET, July 23, 2010, http://www.eenews.net/climatewire/ 2010/07/23/l/.
2. See generally Robin Kundis Craig, The Gulf Oil Spill and National Marine Sanctuaries, 40 ENVTL. L. REP. 11074(2010), available at http://ssrn.com/ abstract=1648307.
3. See generally IN THE WILDS OF CLIMATE LAW (Rosemary Lyster ed., 2010);
4. Cinnamon Piñon Carlarne, Good Climate Governance: Only a Fragmented System of International Law Away, 30 L. & POL'Y 4 (2008).
5. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Dec. 10, 1982, 1833 U. N. T. S. 397 [hereinafter UNCLOS].
6. See J. B. Ruhl & James Salzman, Climate Change, Dead Zones, and Massive Problems in the Administrative State: A Guide for Whittling Away, 98 CALIF. L. REV. 59, 72-80 (2010) (suggesting an alternative framework and a method/roadmap for looking at complex problems whereby the problem is approached as a "massive problem" that requires more precise definition and is capable of being more effectively-if not fully-addressed through carefully crafted regulatory frameworks).
7. Horst W. J. Rittel & Melvin M. Webber, Dilemmas in a General Theory of Planning, 4 POL'Y SCI. 155 (1973).
8. See, e.g., Richard J. Lazarus, Super Wicked Problems and Climate Change: Restraining the Present To Liberate the Future, 94 CORNELL L. REV. 1153, 1159 (2009).
9. See generally Cass R. Sunstein, On the Divergent American Reactions to Terrorism and Climate Change (John M. Olin Law & Economics Working Paper No. 295, 2d series 2006), available at http://ssrn. com/abstract=906889.
10. See Kelly Levin et al., Playing It Forward: Path Dependency, Progressive Incrementalism, and the "Super Wicked" Problem of Global Climate Change, 6 IOP CONF. S.: EARTH & ENVTL. SCI. 1, 8-10 (July 7, 2007), available at http://www.allacademic.com//meta/p-mla-apa-research-citation/l/7/9/ 7/0/pagesl79707/pl79707-l.php (noting that "although the challenges of climate change and many other complex environmental and social problems are captured by the above characteristics, climate poses three additional features that render it a 'super wicked problem.'").
11. See. e.g., NICHOLAS STERN, THE ECONOMICS OF CLIMATE CHANGE: THE STERN REVIEW (2007);
12. Kenneth J. Arrow, Global Climate Change: A Challenge to Policy, ECONOMISTS' VOICE (June 2007), http://www.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi? article=1270&context=ev.
13. But see Martin L. Weitzman, Review, A Review of the Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change, 45 J. ECON. LITERATURE 703 (2007) (critiquing the Stern Review, with particular regard to its method of discounting);
14. William D. Nordhaus, The "Stern Review " on the Economics of Climate Change (Nat'l Bureau of Econ. Research, Cambridge Mass., Working Paper No. 12741, 2006), http://www.nber.org/papers/wl2741 (last visited Apr. 1, 2011).
15. See generally Oliver Bakewell, Research Beyond the Categories: The Importance of Policy Irrelevant Research into Forced Migration, 21 J. REFUGEE STUD. 432 (2008);
16. Stephen Castles, The International Politics of Forced Migration, 46 DEV. 11 (2003);
17. Richard Black, Environmental Refugees: Myth or Reality? (New Issues in Refugee Research, UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), Working Paper No. 34, 2001), available at http://www.unhcr.org/3ae6aOdO0.html;
18. Norman Myers, Environmental Refugees: An Emergent Security Issue (paper delivered at the 13th Economic Forum, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, Prague, Czech Rep., Doc. No. EF. NGO/4/05(2005), available at http://www.osce.org/node/14851).
19. See, e.g., Simon Dietz, Cameron J. Hepburn & Nicholas Stern, Economics, Ethics and Climate Change, in 2 ARGUMENTS FOR A BETTER WORLD: ESSAYS IN HONOUR OF AMARTYA SEN: SOCIETY, INSTITUTIONS AND DEVELOPMENT (Kaushik Basu & Ravi Kanbur, eds., 2009);
20. Tracy Bach & Burns H. Weston, Recalibrating The Law of Humans with The Laws of Nature: Climate Change, Human Rights, and Intergenerational Justice (Vermont Law School Legal Studies Research Paper Series, Research Paper No. 10-06, 2009);
21. David Schlosberg, Climate Justice Beyond Equity: The Flourishing of Human and Non-Human Communities (paper delivered at the American Political Science Association Annual Meeting, Toronto, Can. (2009), available at http://ssrn. com/abstract=1449681).
22. See, e.g., IN THE WILDS OF CLIMATE LAW, supra note 3;
23. William Burns, Potential Causes of Action for Climate Change Damages in International Fora: The Law of the Sea Convention, 2 INT'L J. SUSTAINABLE DEV. L. & POL'Y 27 (2006).
24. See, e.g., Frank Gervais, Ulf Riebesell & Maxim Y. Gorbunov, Changes in Primary Productivity and Chlorophyll a in Response to Iron Fertilization in the Southern Polar Frontal Zone, 47 LIMNOLOGY AND OCEANOGRAPHY 5 (2002) (discussing several iron enrichment experiments in the Southern Ocean);
25. see also Quirin Schiermeier, Ocean Fertilization Experiment Draws Fire, NATURE. COM (Jan. 15, 2009), http://www.nature. com/news/2009/090109/full/news, 2009.13.html (discussing a controversial ocean iron fertilization experiment sponsored by the German science ministry).
26. See Maritime Jurisdiction and Boundaries in die Arctic Region. DURHAM UNIV. (Sept. 2010). http: www dur.ac.uk. ibru resources arctic/[hereinafter Maritime Jurisdiction and Boundaries].
27. Mckenzie hunk. Healv Mapping Mission: Arctic Landgrah. NAT'L GEOGAPHIC (Mav 2009). available at http: ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2009 05 healy funk-text.
28. See Donald R. Rothwell, The Arctic in International Affairs: Time for a New Regime? (ANU College of Law Research Paper No. 08-37, 2008), available at http://papers.ssrn. com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract-id=1314546;
29. see also Betsy Baker, Law. Science, and the Continental Shelf: The Russian Federation and the Promise of Arctic Cooperation, 25 AM. U. INT'L L. REV. 251 (2010) [hereinafter Baker, Law, Science, and the Continental Shelf]. There are exceptions to this. For example, Canada and the United States have a long-standing disagreement over the maritime boundary in the Beaufort Sea.
30. See, e.g., TED L. MCDORMAN, SALT WATER NEIGHBORS: INTERNATIONAL OCEAN LAW RELATIONS BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA 181-90 (2009);
31. Betsy Baker, Filling an Arctic Gap: Legal and Regulatory Possibilities for Canadian-U. S. Cooperation in the Beaufort Sea, 34 VT. L. REV. 57 (2009).
32. 2 and twenty-four time zones", with a "population of about four million, including over thirty different indigenous peoples and dozens of languages. The Arctic is a region of vast natural resources and a very clean environment compared with most areas of the world." About Arctic Council, ARCTIC COUNCIL (Oct. 22, 2007), http://arctic-council.org/article/ about. The Arctic Governance Project similarly defines the Arctic as the circumpolar region encompassing both marine and terrestrial systems extending southward from the North Pole, covering about 8% of the Earth's surface, including areas located within the jurisdiction of eight States, providing a homeland for many indigenous peoples, and including altogether some 4 million residents. But this region is highly diverse in biophysical, socioeconomic, and cultural terms. The impacts of climate change and globalization have also intensified interactions between the Arctic and other parts of the planet.
33. THE ARCTIC GOVERNANCE PROJECT, ARCTIC GOVERNANCE IN AN ERA OF TRANSFORMATIVE CHANGE: CRITICAL QUESTIONS, GOVERNANCE PRINCIPLES, WAYS FORWARD: REPORT OF THE ARCTIC GOVERNANCE PROJECT 3(2010), available at http://img9.custompublish.com/getfile.php/1219555.1529. wyaufxvxuc/ AGP+Report+April+14+2010[1].pdf?return=arcticgo vemance.custompublish.com [hereinafter ARCTIC GOVERNANCE].
34. Limits of Oceans and Seas S-23, INT'L HYDROGRAPHIC ORG. (IHO), http://www.iho-ohi.net/iho-pubs/standard/S-23/S23-Ed3-Sheet-l-Small.jpg (last visited Apr. 1, 2011);
35. see Baker, Law, Science, and the Continental Shelf, supra note 23, at 252.
36. See Baker, Law, Science, and the Continental Shelf, supra note 23, at 252
37. (citing George B. Newton, Coming to the Arctic: Oil, Ships, and LOS Convention Plus Risk and Research, in INTERNATIONAL ENERGY POLICY, THE ARCTIC AND THE LAW OF THE SEA 321, 324 (Myron H. Nordquist et al. eds., 2005));
38. see also MARTIN JAKOBSSON ET AL., INTERNATIONAL BATHYMETRIC CHART OF THE ARCTIC OCEAN (IBCAO) BETA VERSION: TECHNICAL REFERENCE AND USER'S GUIDE, available at http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/bathymetry/arctic/IBCAO- TechnicalReference.PDF.
39. Scott J. Shackelford, Was Selden Right? The Expansion of Closed Seas and the Consequences, 47 STAN. J. INT'L L. 2 (forthcoming 2011), available at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract-id=1669737.
40. See Baker, Law, Science, and the Continental Shelf, supra note 23, at 255.
41. See, e.g., Timo Koivurova, Governance of Protected Areas in the Arctic, 5 UTRECHT L. REV. 44 (2009).
42. For a brief overview of formal and informal governance efforts in the Arctic, see ARCTIC GOVERNANCE, supra note 24, at 4-5;
43. see also PHILIP BUDZIK, U. S. ENERGY INFO. ADMIN., Arctic Oil and Natural Gas Potential (2009), available at http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/analysispaper/ arctic/index.html (providing a factual overview of the area and discussing the fact that "[j]urisdictionally, the Arctic contains portions of eight countries-Canada, Denmark (Greenland), Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the United States. Finland and Sweden do not border the Arctic Ocean and are the only Arctic countries without jurisdictional claims in the Arctic Ocean and adjacent seas.").
44. See, e.g., Agreement Between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Russian Federation on the Conservation and Management of the Alaska-Chukotka Polar Bear Population, U. S.-Russ., Oct. 16, 2000, S. TREATY DOC. NO. 107-10(2002), available at http://pbsg.npolar.no/en/ agreements/US-Russia.html [hereinafter Polar Bear Population Agreement];
45. THE ARCTIC COUNCIL, http://www.arctic-council.org/article/about (established by the Ottawa Declaration of 1996 "as a high level intergovernmental forum to provide a means for promoting cooperation, coordination and interaction among the Arctic States, with the involvement of the Arctic Indigenous communities and other Arctic inhabitants on common Arctic issues, in particular issues of sustainable development and environmental protection in the Arctic");
46. Barents Euro-Arctic Council, Declaration: Cooperation in the Barents Euroarctic Region, Conference of Foreign Ministers in Kirkenes (Jan. 11, 1993), available at http://www.barentsinfo.fi/beac/docs/459-doc-KirkenesDeclaration.pdf (established in 1993 to "provide impetus to existing cooperation and consider new initiatives and proposals" in the Barents Region of the Arctic);
47. CONSERVATION OF ARCTIC FLORA AND FAUNA PROGRAM (CAFF), http://caff.arcticportal.org/about-caff (last visited Apr. 1, 2011) (noting that the goals of CAFF include monitoring Arctic biodiversity, conserving Arctic species and their habitats, considering the establishment of protected areas, conserving nature outside of protected areas and integrating conservation objectives and measures for economic sectors of the society);
48. CIRCUMPOLAR AREAS PROTECTED NETWORK (CPAN), http://caff.arcticportal.org/ expert-groups/circumpolar-protected-area-network-cpan (last visited Apr. 1, 2011) (stating CPAN was "established in 1998 to oversee and advance the CPAN program and to provide the CAFF Board with advice on needed actions. It aims to ensure sufficient protection of all habitat types in the Arctic"). The five Arctic nations have also entered into various natural resources management regimes for reindeer, fisheries and polar bears.
49. See, e.g., UNCLOS, supra note 4;
50. Convention on the International Maritime Organization (IMO), art. 52, Mar. 6, 1948, 9 U. S. T. 621
51. U. N. T. S. 48;
52. Treaty Concerning the Archipelago of Spitsbergen, and Protocol, Paris, France, Feb. 9, 1920, 4 U. S. T. 4861
53. L. N. T. S. 8 (the Parties to the treaty agreed to recognize Norway's sovereignty over the Archipelago of Spitsbergen in return for a commitment from Norway to demilitarize the area and allow all Parties equal access to the area's natural resources, encourage scientific research, and establish an equitable administrative system) [hereinafter Treaty of Spitsbergen].
54. See, e.g., Agreement Between the Government of Canada and the Government of the United States of America on Arctic Cooperation, U. S.-Can., Jan. 11, 1988, T. I. A. S. No. 11565;
55. Agreement Between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of Canada on the Conservation of the Porcupine Caribou Herd, U. S.-Can., July 17, 1987, T. I. A. S. No. 11, 259 (this Agreement gave rise to the Plan for the International Conservation of the Porcupine Caribou Herd, available at http://www.taiga.net/pcmb/documents/international-conservation- plan.pdf).
56. See, e.g., Treaty of Spitsbergen, supra note 32.
57. See, e.g., UNCLOS, supra note 4.
58. See also James Harrison, The International Seabed Authority and the Development of the Legal Regime for Deep Seabed Mining (U. of Edinburgh School of Law Working Paper No. 2010/17, 2010), available at http://ssrn. com/abstracM609687 (providing an excellent overview of the issues surrounding future governance decisions of the deep seabed).
59. In contrast to the governance system that exists in Antarctica, however, the Arctic framework is piecemeal and soft. Antarctica is governed by The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, Oct. 4, 1991, 30 I. L. M. 1455 (1991);
60. The Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, May 21, 1980, 33 U. S. T. 3476
61. U. N. T. S. 47;
62. The Antarctic Treaty, Dec. 1, 1959, 402 U. N. T. S. 71 (entered into force June 23, 1961).
63. ARCTIC GOVERNANCE, supra note 24.
64. See, e.g., Hari Osofsky, Inuit Petition as a Bridge? Beyond Dialectics of Climate Change and Indigenous Peoples' Rights, 31 AM. INDIAN L. REV. 675 (2007) (exploring the challenges posed to the Inuit by rapid climate change and the legal implications of the Inuit Petition to the Inter-American Human Rights Commission alleging that acts and omissions on the part of the United States violated Inuit human rights);
65. Nobel Prize Nominee Testifies About Global Warming: Inuit Leader Sheila Watt-Cloutier 's Testimony Before the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights Put Spotlight on Climate Change and Indigenous Peoples, CTR. FOR INT'L EVNTL. L. (Mar. 1, 2007) (testimony of Sheila Watt-Cloutier before Inter-American Commission on Human Rights), http://www.ciel.org/Publications/IACHR-WC-Mar07. pdf;
66. Inuit File Petition with Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Claiming Global Warming Caused by United States Is Destroying Their Culture and Livelihoods, CTR. FOR INT'L ENVTL. L. (Dec. 7, 2005), http://www.ciel.org/ Climate/ICC-Petition-7Dec05.html.
67. See, e.g., E. J. Molenaar, Arctic Marine Shipping: Overview of the International Legal Framework, Gaps and Options, 18 FLA. ST. U. J. TRANSNAT'L L. & POL'Y 289 (2009).
68. See generally DONALD ROTHWELL, THE POLAR REGIONS AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL LAW (1996).
69. See Maritime Jurisdiction and Boundaries, supra note 20.
70. Ilulissat Declaration, Artic Ocean Conference, May 28, 2008, available at http://www.oceanlaw.org/downloads/arctic/llulissat-Declaration.pdf.
71. UNCLOS, supra note 4, art. 76 (3).
72. Harald Brekke, Scientific and Technical Guidelines of the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (unpublished presentation at 7, available at www.continentalshelf.org/-documents/Chapte l&2-Entitlement.ppt) (noting that "[t]he continental shelf comprises the sea-bed and subsoil" but that "the superjacent water is not included.").
73. See UNCLOS, supra note 4, art. 76 (2) - (10).
74. Purpose, Functions and Sessions, COMM'N ON THE LIMITS OF THE CONTINENTAL SHELF (CLCS), available at http://www.un.org/Depts/los/clcs-new/commission- purpose.htm (last visited Mar. 10, 2011).
75. The functions of the CLCS are defined in Annex II to the Convention. UNCLOS, supra note 4, Annex II.
76. UNCLOS, supra note 4, art. 76(8), Annex II, art. 3.
77. see United Nations Convention on the Continental Shelf, Apr. 29, 1958, 499 U. N. T. S. 311, T. I. A. S. No. 5578, art. 6, ¶ 2 [hereinafter Convention on the Continental Shelf]. The terms "opposite" and "adjacent" lend themselves to much dispute.
78. See, e.g., North Sea Continental Shelf (F. R. G. v. Den., F. R. G. v. Neth.), 1969 I. C. J. 3, ¶ 42 (Feb. 20) (determining that there is "no necessary, and certainly no complete, identity between the notions of adjacency and proximity; and therefore the question of which parts of the continental shelf 'adjacent to' a coastline bordering more than one State fall within the appurtenance of which of them, remains to this extent an open one, not to be determined on a basis exclusively of proximity. Even if proximity may afford one of the tests to be applied and an important one in the right conditions, it may not necessarily be the only, nor in all circumstances, the most appropriate one.").
79. See, e.g., CLIMATE GOVERNANCE IN THE ARCTIC (Timo Koivurova et al. eds., 2009) [hereinafter CLIMATE GOVERNANCE];
80. UNCLOS, supra note 4, art. 77 (1) - (3) ("The rights of the coastal State over the continental shelf do not depend on occupation, effective or notional, or on any express proclamation. ").
81. Baker, Law, Science, and the Continental Shelf, supra note 23, at 257
82. (citing Donald L. Gautier et al., Assessment of the Undiscovered Oil and Gas in the Arctic, 324 SCI. 1175, 1176 (2009));
83. see U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, CIRCUM-ARCTIC RESOURCE APPRAISAL: ESTIMATES OF UNDISCOVERED OIL AND GAS NORTH OF THE ARCTIC CIRCLE (Peter H. Stauffer ed., 2008), available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2008/3049/fs2008-3049.pdf.
84. Baker, Law, Science, and the Continental Shelf, supra note 23, at 257
85. (citing Donald L. Gautier et al., Assessment of the Undiscovered Oil and Gas in the Arctic, 324 SCI. 1175, 1176 (2009)).
86. Scott J. Schackelford, The Tragedy of the Common Heritage of Mankind, 28 STAN. ENVTL. L. J. 109, 132 (2009).
87. UNCLOS, supra note 4, Annex II: Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf, art. 4.
88. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Table of Ratifications/Accessions etc., http://un.org/Depts/los/reference-files/ status2010.pdf.
89. Prior to the negotiation of UNCLOS, in the 1945 Truman Declaration (Sept. 28, 1945), the United States laid the foundation for current debate declaring that the Government of the United States "regards the natural resources of the subsoil and sea bed of the continental shelf beneath the high seas but contiguous to the coasts of the United States, subject to jurisdiction and control." Proclamation No. 2667, 3 C. F. R. 67 (1945).
90. Outer Limits of the Continental Shelf Beyond 200 Nautical Miles from the Baselines: Submissions to the Commission: Submission by the Russian Federation, U. N. COMM'N ON THE LIMITS OF THE CONTINENTAL SHELF (June 30, 2009), http://www.un.org/Depts/los/clcs-new/submissions-files/subrnission-rus.htrn.
91. Outer Limits of the Continental Shelf Beyond 200 Nautical Miles from the Baselines: Submissions to the Commission: Submission by the Kingdom of Norway, U. N. COMM'N ON THE LIMITS OF THE CONTINENTAL SHELF (Aug. 20, 2009), http://www.un.org/Depts/los/clcs-new/submissions-files/submission-nor. htm#Recommendations-.
92. U. N. Secretary-General, Oceans and the Law of the Sea: Rep. of the Secretary-General, ¶ 41, U. N. Doc. A/57/57/Add.l (Oct. 8, 2002), available at http://daccess-ddsny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N02/629/28/PDF/N0262928.pdf? OpenElement.
93. Comm'n on the Limits of the Continental Shelf, Summary of the Recommendations of the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf in Regard to the Submission Made by Norway in Respect of Areas in the Arctic Ocean, the Barents Sea and the Norwegian Sea on 27 November 2006, Annex VI (Mar. 27, 2009), http://www.un. org/Depts/los/clcs-new/submissions-files/nor06/nor-rec- summ.pdf.
94. See, e.g., U. S. Extended Continental Shelf Project, U. S. DEP'T OF STATE, http://www.state.gov/g/oes/continentalshelf/index.htm (last visited Mar. 10, 2011) ("Since 2001, U. S. agencies have been engaged in gathering and analyzing data to determine the outer limits of the U. S. ECS.").
95. North Sea Continental Shelf (F. R. G. v. Den., F. R. G. v. Neth.), 1969 I. C. J. 3 (Feb. 20).
96. SUMMARIES OF JUDGMENTS, ADVISORY OPINIONS, AND ORDERS OF THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE: 1948-1991, at 72(2002), available at http://www.icjcij.org/docket/files/52/5563.pdf [hereinafter ICJ SUMMARY OF JUDGMENTS].
97. North Sea Continental Shelf, 1969 I. C. J. ¶ 62.
98. ICJ SUMMARY OF JUDGMENTS, supra note 84, at 72.
99. North Sea Continental Shelf, 1969 I. C. J. ¶ 85.
100. See Treaty Between the Kingdom of Denmark and the Federal Republic of Germany Concerning the Delimitation of the Continental Shelf Under the North Sea, F. R. G.-Den., Jan. 28, 1971, 857 U. N. T. S. 109;
101. Treaty Between the Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Federal Republic of Germany Concerning the Delimitation of the Continental Shelf Under the North Sea, F. R. G.-Neth., Jan. 28, 1971, 857 U. N. T. S. 131 (1973).
102. See North Sea Continental Shelf, 1969 I. C. J. ¶¶ 62-70.
103. UNCLOS, supra note 4, pmbl.
104. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, pmbl. para. 1, U. N. Doc. FCCC/CP/1997/7/Add.l, Dec. 10, 1997
105. I. L. M. 22 (1998) [hereinafter UNFCCC];
106. see also G. A. Res. 45/212, U. N. Doc. A/RES/45/212 (Dec. 21, 1990) (determining that climate change is a "common concern of mankind" and rejecting previous proposals to denote the global climate as the "common heritage of mankind");
107. G. A. Res. 44/207, U. N. Doc. A/RES/44/207 (Dec. 22, 1989);
108. G. A. Res. 43/53, U. N. Doc. A/RES/43/53 (Dec. 6, 1988).
109. Convention on Biological Diversity pmbl. para. 3, June 5, 1992, 1760 U. N. T. S. 79, available at http://www.cbd.int/doc/legal/cbd-en.pdf [hereinafter CBD]
110. See PHILIPPE SANDS, PRINCIPLES OF INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL LAW 287 (2003) (1995).
111. Centre for International Sustainable Development Law, The Principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities: Origins and Scope 1 (Centre for International Sustainable Development Working Paper and Legal Brief Series, 2002), available at http://www.cisdl.org/pdf/brief.common.pdf (last visited Apr. 1, 2011).
112. See Baker, Law, Science, and the Continental Shelf, supra note 23, at 252-53 (arguing that the Arctic coastal states are exhibiting high levels of cooperation and that the media is vastly overstating the potential for conflict).
113. See e.g., Int'l Whaling Comm. [IWC], Details for the International Whaling Commission's 62nd Annual Meeting June 21-25, 2010(2010), available at http://iwcoffice.org/meetings/meeting2010.htm (detailing the inability of the Parties to reach consensus on the Future of the IWC, with particular regard to the status of the Revised Management Scheme and the Moratorium on Commercial Whaling).
114. See, e.g., Juliet Eilperin, Only One Breed of Shark, the Porbeagle, Earns Protection at CITES Conference, WASH. POST, Mar. 24, 2010, http://www. washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/03/23/AR2010032300667.html;
115. Juliet Eilperin, Tuna, Polar Bear Protections Rejected, WASH. POST, Mar. 18, 2010, http://views.washingtonpost.com/climate-change/post-carbon/2010/03/ polar-bear-protections-rejected.html.
116. See, e.g., SPS Agreement Training Module: Chapter 5, Implementation- Dispute Settlement, 5.2 The SPS Disputes, WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION, available at http://www.wto.org/english/tratop-e/sps-e/sps-agreement-cbt-e/c5s2p1-e.htm (last visited Apr. 1, 2011) (detailing the various settled and pending disputes under the sanitary and phytosanitary measures (SPS), the majority of which involve questions of food safety).
117. See generally CLIMATE GOVERNANCE, supra note 66.
118. UNFCCC, supra note 101.
119. See ARCTIC GOVERNANCE, supra note 24, at 5.
120. See The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, Oct. 4, 1991, 12 U. S. T. 794, 30 I. L. M. 1455;
121. The Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, May 21, 1980, 1329 U. N. T. S. 47;
122. The Antarctic Treaty, Dec. 1 1959, 402 U. N. T. S. 71.
123. Nor does Antarctica contain any native peoples that live under the jurisdiction of a state. However, Antarctica is subject to increasing numbers of coastal state claims asserting jurisdiction over areas of the continental shelf in the Southern Ocean. By April 2009, the CLCS had received twenty-one submissions from coastal States making jurisdictional claims in the Southern Ocean. The Continental Shelf and the UN Process, U. K. FOREIGN & COMMONWEALTH OFFICE, Apr. 8, 2009, available at http://www.fco.gov. uk/en/news/latestnews/?view=News&id=l 6346920;
124. see also Anna Homan, Maritime Zones in Antarctica, 20 AUSTRL. & N. Z. MARITIME L. J. 69(2006), available at https://maritimejournal.murdoch.edu. au/index.php/maritimejournal/article/viewFile/21/44 (offering a concise overview of the legal challenges associated with Coastal States' efforts to establish sovereignty over maritime zones in the Southern Ocean);
125. Annual Antarctic Treaty Conference Opens Monday in Uruguay, MERCPRESS (May 3, 2010), available at http://en. mercopress.com/2010/05/03/annual- antarctic-treaty-conference-opens-monday-in-uruguay;
126. Owen Bocott, Britain To Claim More than 1M Sq Km of Antarctica, THE GUARDIAN (U. K.), Oct. 17, 2007, http://www.guardian. co.uk/news/2007/oct/I7/ antarctica.sciencenews.
127. Cinnamon Carlarne, The Glue That Binds or the Straw That Broke the Camel's Back?: Exploring the Implications of U. S. Reengagement in Global Climate Change Negotiations, 19 TUL. J. INT'L & COMP. L. 113 (2010).
128. ARCTIC REPORT CARD: UPDATE FOR 2010, TRACKING RECENT ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES (J. Richter-Menge & J. E. Overland, eds., 2010), available at http://www.arctic. noaa.gov/reportcard/ArcticReportCard-full-report.pdf.
129. David G. Victor, On the Regulation of Geoengineering, 24 OXFORD REV. ECON. POL'Y 322, 323 (2008).
130. SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY COMMITTEE, THE REGULATION OF GEOENGINEERING: FIFTH REPORT OF SESSION 2009-10, 2010, H. C. 221, at 3 (U. K.) [hereinafter HOUSE OF COMMONS REPORT].
131. See, e.g., HOUSE OF COMMONS REPORT, supra note 123, at 13;
132. see also Gareth T. Davies, Law and Policy Issues of Unilateral Geoengineering: Moving to a Managed World (Jan. 29, 2009) (working paper), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1334625.
133. MacCracken would add a third group to these categories, that is, efforts to moderate the adverse impacts of human-induced climate change, i.e., impact intervention. Michael C. MacCracken, Beyond Mitigation: Potential Options for Counter-Balancing the Climatic and Environmental Consequences of the Rising Concentrations of Greenhouse Gases 30-33 (The World Bank, Policy Research Working Paper No. 4938, May 2009).
134. For helpful reviews of geoengineering techniques and technologies, see HOUSE OF COMMONS REPORT, supra note 123, at 11-17;
135. NAT'L ACAD, OF SCI., NAT'L RES. COUNCIL, CRITICAL ISSUES IN WEATHER MODIFICATION RESEARCH (2003);
136. Philip W. Boyd, Ranking Geo-Engineering Schemes, 1 NATURE GEOSCIENCE 722, 722-24 (2008);
137. Alan Carlin, Global Climate Control: Is There a Better Strategy than Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions?, 155 U. PA. L. REV. 1401 (2007);
138. Roelof T. Bruintjes, Overview of Weather Modification Programs Around the World, NAT'L CENTER FOR ATMOSPHERIC RES., available at http://www.rap. ucar.edu/general/press/presentations/wxmod-overview/index.html (last visited Apr. 1, 2011).
139. See, e.g., Morteza Khalili Sr. et al., Results of Cloud Seeding Operations for Precipitation Enhancement in Iran during 1999-2007, PLANNED & INADVERTENT WEATHER MODIFICATION/WEATHER MODIFICATION ASS'N (Apr. 22, 2008), available at http://ams. confex.com/ams/17WModWMA/techprogram/paper-139149.htm.
140. See, e.g., Eli Kintisch, Mother Earth Has a Fever: Should Geoengineering Tests Be Governed by the Principles of Medical Ethics?, SLATE (Apr. 22, 2010), http://www.slate. com/id/2250462/;
141. Jeffrey Kluger, A Quick Fix for Climate Change Falls Flat, TIME (June 28, 2010), http://ecocentric.blogs.time.com/2010/06/28/a-quick-fix-for-climate- change-fallsflat;
142. Gregory M. Lamb, Should Geoengineering Be Used To Address Global Warming?, CHRISTIAN SCI. MONITOR, (May 3, 2010), available at http://www.csmonitor.com/Environment/2010/0503/Should-geoengineering-be-used-to- address-global-warming;
143. Lee Lane, Geoengineering Experiments Shouldn 't Require Global Agreement, THE ENTERPRISE BLOG (Mar. 30, 2010), http://blog.american.com/?p=l1895.
144. Press Release, U. S. House of Representatives, Comm. on Sci. & Tech., Subcommittee Examines Geoengineering Strategies and Hazards (Feb. 4, 2010), http://sciencedems.house.gov/press/PRArticle.aspx?NewsID=2741;
145. HOUSE OF COMMONS REPORT, supra note 123.
146. See, e.g., STEVEN D. LEVITT & STEPHEN J. DUBNER, SUPERFREAKONOMICS: GLOBAL COOLING, PATRIOTIC PROSTITUTES, AND WHY SUICIDE BOMBERS SHOULD BUY LIFE INSURANCE (2009).
147. HOUSE OF COMMONS REPORT, supra note 123, at 3.
148. See, e.g., Mark G. Lawrence, Editorial Comment: The Geoengineering Dilemma: To Speak or Not To Speak, 77 CLIMATIC CHANGE 245, 246 (2006) (suggesting that if the global community does not engage in adequate research now, it will not have the tools to make good decisions later).
149. HOUSE OF COMMONS REPORT, supra note 123, at 3.
150. See, e.g., TIM FLANNERY, THE WEATHER MAKERS: HOW MAN IS CHANGING THE CLIMATE AND WHAT IT MEANS FOR LIFE ON EARTH 291 (2005) (suggesting that the global community "would have no choice" but to utilize geoengineering if confronted with the type of abrupt climate change discussed above).
151. See also Eric Biber, Climate Change and Backlash, 17 N. Y. U. ENVTL. L. J. 1295, 1363-64 (2009) (arguing that we need to at least consider certain geoengineering techniques in our portfolio of policy options in order to hedge "against the risk of a 'backlash.'").
152. Scott Barrett, The Incredible Economics of Geoengineering, 39 ENVTL. & RES. ECON. 45, 45-46 (2008).
153. See, e.g., Thomas C Schelling, The Economic Diplomacy of Geoengineering, 33 CLIMATIC CHANGE 303, 305-06 (1996) (describing the economics of geoengineering as "simple" and international mitigation as "exceedingly complicated").
154. See, e.g., William Daniel Davis, What Does "Green" Mean?: Anthropogenic Climate Change, Geoengineering, and International Environmental Law, 43 GA. L. REV. 901, 925-26 (2009).
155. See Sarah Polborn & Felix Tintelnot, How Geoengineering May Encourage Carbon Dioxide Abatement 5-7 (Ctr. For Research on Int'l Fin. and Energy Sec, Working Paper, 2009), available at http://crifes.psu.edu/papers/polbornpaper. pdf.
156. Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Dec. 10, 1997, U. N. Doc FCCC/CP/1997/7/Add.l, 37 I. L. M. 22 (1998).
157. Paul J. Crutzen, Albedo Enhancement by Stratospheric Sulfur Injections: A Contribution To Resolve a Policy Dilemma?, 77 CLIMATIC CHANGE 211, 216 (2006).
158. Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques, May 18, 1977, 31 U. S. T. 333
159. U. N. T. S. 151, available at http://www.un-documents.net/etunod.htm [hereinafter ENMOD].
160. UNCLOS thus may become relevant with regard to algae-fertilization if a party can show that algae-fertilization constitutes "pollution of the marine environment." UNCLOS, supra note 4, art. 194.
161. Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Waste and Other Matter art. I, Dec. 29, 1972, 26 U. S. T. 2403
162. U. N. T. S. 120 [hereinafter London Convention]. The London Convention defines "dumping" as "any deliberate disposal at sea of wastes or other matter from vessels, aircraft, platforms or other man-made structures at sea" or "any deliberate disposal at sea of vessels, aircraft, platforms or other manmade structures at sea." Id. art. III (1) (a). In relevant part, however, the London Convention excludes from the definition of dumping: the "placement of matter for a purpose other than the mere disposal thereof, provided that such placement is not contrary to the aims of this Convention. " Id. art. III (l) (b).
163. Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context, Feb. 25, 1991, 30 I. L. M. 800, available at http://www.unece.org/env/eia/ documents/legaltexts/conventiontextenglish.pdf.
164. Rep. of the Int'l Law Comm'n, 53rd Sess., Apr. 23-June 1, July 10-Aug. 10, 2001, U. N. Doc. A/56/10, at 370-436;
165. GAOR, 56th Sess., Supp. No. 10(2001), available at http://www.un.org/ documents/ga/docs/56/a5610.pdf.
166. Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Arg. v. Uru.), Judgment, 2010 I. C. J. 20, ¶¶ 178-80 (Apr. 20), available at http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/ files/135/15877.pdf;
167. see also Cymie R. Payne, Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay: The International Court of Justice Recognizes Environmental Impact Assessment as a Duty Under International Law, ASIL INSIGHT (Apr. 22, 2010), http://www.asil.org/ insightsl00422.cfm (discussing the implications of the case for notification, consultation and broadened EIA requirements in regards to activities that pose a risk of transboundary harm).
168. United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, Braz., June 3-14, 1992, Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, U. N. Doc A/CONF.151/26 (Vol. 1) (Aug. 12, 1992).
169. For helpful works exploring the evolution of the precautionary principle, see James Cameron & Juli Abouchar, The Precautionary Principle: A Fundamental Principle of Law and Policy for the Protection of the Global Environment, 14 B. C. INT'L & COMP. L. REV. 1 (1991);
170. David Freestone, Caution or Precaution: 'A Rose by Any Other Name⋯?', 10 Y. B. INT'L ENVTL. L. 25 (1999).
171. In its earliest statement on the principle of permanent sovereignty the UN General Assembly declared that "each country has the right to formulate, in accordance with its own particular situation and in full enjoyment of its national sovereignty, its own national policies on the human environment⋯." G. A. Res. 2849 (XXVI), at 71, U. N. Doc. A/RES/2849 (Dec. 20, 1971), available at http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/ NR0/328/65/IMG/NR032865.pdf?OpenElement. The right of states to exercise permanent sovereignty over their own natural resources has been restated by numerous multilateral environmental agreements, including the UNFCCC and the CBD.
172. Defined by the Bruntland Report as development that "meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." World Comm'n on Env't and Dev., Our Common Future, Transmitted by Note of the Secretary-General, U. N. Doc. A/42/427 (Aug. 4, 1987), available at http://daccess-ddsny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N87/184/67/IMG/ N8718467.pdf?OpenElement;
173. see also EDITH BROWN WEISS, IN FAIRNESS TO FUTURE GENERATIONS: INTERNATIONAL LAW, COMMON PATRIMONY AND INTERGENERATIONAL EQUITY (1989);
174. Igor Vojnovic, Intergenerational and Intragenerational Equity Requirements for Sustainability, 22 ENVTL. CONSERVATION 223, 223-28 (1995).
175. Int'l Mar. Org. [IMO], Statement of Concern Regarding Iron Fertilization of the Oceans To Sequester CO2, ¶ 1 IMO Ref. T5/5.01, LC-LP.l/Circ. 14 (July 13, 2007), available at www.imo.org/includes/blastData.asp/doc-id=8377/14. pdf;
176. see also Ninth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to Convention on Biological Diversity, Bonn, Germany, May 19-30, 2008, Decision IX/16: Biodiversity and Climate Change, § C, UNEP/CBD/COP/DEC/IX/16 (Oct. 9, 2008), available at http://www.cbd.int/doc/decisions/cop-09/cop-09-dec-16-en. pdf.
177. Statement of Concern Regarding Iron Fertilization of the Oceans To Sequester CO2, supra note 165.
178. IMO, Report of the Twenty-Ninth Consultative Meeting and the Second Meeting of the Contracting Parties, ¶.3. 1, LC 29/17 (Dec. 14, 2007).
179. 2 Under the Seabed, IMO (Feb. 9, 2007), http://www.imo.org/Newsroom/mainframe.asp? topic-id=1472&doc-id=7772.
180. See, e.g., IMO, Scientific Grp. of the London Convention, Ocean Fertilization: Interim Report on Ocean Fertilization Science Overviews, Submitted by the Chairman of the SG Ocean Fertilization Correspondence Group, LC 31/4 (Sept. 4, y2009) [hereinafter IMO, Interim Report on Ocean Fertilization].
181. tIMO, Scientific Grp. of the London Convention, Ocean Fertilization: Scientific Synthesis on the Impacts of Ocean Fertilization on Marine Biodiversity Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, LC/SG 33/INF.2 (Jan. 11, 2010).
182. IMO, Scientific Grp. of the London Convention, Ocean Fertilization: Development of Science Overviews on Ocean Fertilization Report of the Ocean Fertilization Correspondence Group, Submitted by the Chairman of the SG Ocean Fertilization Correspondence Group, LC/SG 33/2/1 (Mar. 5, 2010) [hereinafter IMO, Development of Science Overviews].
183. See IMO, Interim Report on Ocean Fertilization, supra note 176, ¶ 5.
184. See IMO, Development of Science Overviews, supra note 178, ¶ 3 (. 1).
185. See generally IMO, Interim Report on Ocean Fertilization, supra note 176.
186. See IMO, Development of Science Overviews, supra note 178, ¶ 8.
187. United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity, Recommendations Adopted by the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice at its Thirteenth Meeting, UNEP/CBD/COP/9/3, SBSTTA 13 Recommendation XIII/6, Biodiversity and Climate Change: Options for Mutually Supportive Actions Addressing Climate Change Within the Three Rio Conventions (Feb. 18-22, 2008), available at http://www.cbd.int/doc/recommendations/sbstta-13/full/sbstta-13- rec-en.pdf.
188. Convention on Biological Diversity, Report of the Fourteenth Meeting of the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice, § XIV/5 (l) (8) (w), UNEP/CBD/COP/10/3, (June 20, 2010), available at http://www.cbd.int/doc/meetings/cop/cop-10/official/cop-10-03-en.pdf.
189. UN Moves Towards Geoengineering Moratorium, ENVTL. RES. WEB (May 26, 2010), http://environmentalresearchweb.org/cws/art.icle/youmews/42736;
190. see also ENMOD, supra note 153.
191. See also Convention on Biological Diversity, New and Emerging Issues, ¶ 4 (Oct. 29, 2010), UNEP/CBD/COP/10/L.26;
192. Convention on Biological Diversity, Marine and Coastal Biodiversity, ¶ 13 (e), 57-62 (Oct. 29, 2010), UNEP/CBD/COP/10/L.42 (containing language on research into and control of geoengineering techniques and technologies).
193. Alexis Madrigal, Climate Hackers Want To Write Their Own Rules, WIRED SCI. (Mar. 23, 2010), http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2010/03/geoengineering- asilomar.
194. THE CLIMATE RESPONSE FUND, http://www.climateresponsefund.org/ (last visited Apr. 1, 2011).
195. Asilomar International Conference on Climate Intervention Technologies, THE CLIMATE RESPONSE FUND, http://www.climateresponsefund.org/index.php?option= com-content&view=article&id=137&Itemid=81.
196. Geoengineering the Climate System: A Policy Statement of the American Meteorological Society, AM. METEOROLOGICAL SOC'Y (July 20, 2009), http://www.ametsoc.org/POLICY/2009geoengineeringclimate-amsstatement.pdf.
197. Geoengineering the Climate System, AM. GEOPHYSICAL UNION (Dec. 13, 2009), http://www.agu.org/sci-pol/positions/geoengineering.shtml.
198. Royal Society Launches Major Study on the Governance of Geoengineering, THE ROYAL SOC'Y (Mar. 18, 2010), http://royalsociety.org/Royal-Society-launches- major-studyon-the-governance-of-geoengineering/.
199. See LIMITING THE MAGNITUDE OF CLIMATE CHANGE (2010), NAT'L ACAD, OF SCI., available at http://dels.nas.edu/Report/Limiting-Magnitude-Climate-Change/l 2785.
200. AM. GEOPHYSICAL UNION, supra note 203;
201. AM. METEOROLOGICAL SOC'Y, supra note 202.
202. AM. GEOPHYSICAL UNION, supra note 203;
203. AM. METEOROLOGICAL SOC'Y, supra note 202.
204. THE ROYAL SOC'Y, GEOENGINEERING THE CLIMATE: SCIENCE, GOVERNANCE AND UNCERTAINTY (2009), available at http://royalsociety.org/Geoengineering-the- climate/.
205. Policy Projects: SRM Governance Initiative, THE ROYAL SOC'Y, http://royal society.org/SRM-governance-initiative/ (last visited April 1, 2011).
206. THE ROYAL SOC'Y, supra note 208, at 40.
207. HOUSE OF COMMONS REPORT, supra note 123.
208. See, e.g., Robert Hahn, Climate Policy: Separating Fact from Fantasy, 33 HARV. ENVTL. L. REV. 557, 557 (2009) (arguing against the wisdom of focusing on trying to negotiate a legally binding international agreement even for climate change "because such agreements are not likely to be workable. It makes sense, instead, for interested countries to take some action now to limit greenhouse gas emissions, including putting a price on emissions that may increase over time. It also makes sense to focus on research and development-including how best to adapt to climate change, improve the cost-effectiveness (such as improving carbon capture and storage techniques), and improve our understanding of geoengineering, and improve the cost effectiveness of carbon capture.").
209. HOUSE OF COMMONS REPORT, supra note 123, at 50 (Conclusions and Recommendations).
210. CHAIRMAN BART GORDON, COMM. ON SCI. & TECH., 111TH CONG., ENGINEERING THE CLIMATE: RESEARCH NEEDS AND STRATEGIES FOR INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION (2d Sess. 2010), available at http://democrats.science.house.gov/Media/file/Reports/ EngineeringTheClimate-StaffReport.pdf.
211. Press Release, Comm. on Sci. & Tech., Chairman Gordon Releases Report on Climate Engineering (Oct. 29, 2010), available at http://sciencedems.house. gov/press/PRArticle.aspx?NewsID=2945.
212. United Nations Science Body Calls for Halt on Climate-Hacking Experiments, HANDS OFF MOTHER EARTH (May 19, 2010), http://www. handsoffrnotherearth.org/2010/05/unitednations-science-body-calls-for-halt-on- climate-hacking-experiments/.
213. See Timothy W. Luke, An Emergent Mangle of Practice: Global Climate Change as Vernacular Geoengineering 26 (Am. Political Sci. Ass'n Toronto Meeting Working Paper, 2009), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1450783.
214. Cass R. Sunstein, On the Divergent American Reactions to Terrorism and Climate Change 2 (John M. Olin Law & Economics Working Paper No. 295, 2d series, 2006), available at http://ssrn. com/abstract=906889.
215. Brief Memorandum on Draft Principles for the Conduct of Geoengineering Research from Professor Steve Rayner et al. to the House of Commons Sci. & Tech. Comm. Enquiry into the Regulation of Geoengineering (Dec. 10. 2009), available at http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/centres/insis/Documents/regulation-of- geoengineering.pdf.
216. HOUSE OF COMMONS REPORT, supra note 123, at 29-34.
217. For a helpful overview of the broader impact of intellectual property law on access to climate change technologies, see Abbe E. L. Brown, Securing Access to Climate Change Technologies: Answers and Questions (Univ. of Edinburg Sch. of Law, Working Paper No. 2010/21, 2010), available at http://papers.ssrn. com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract-id=1622024.
218. HOUSE OF COMMONS REPORT, supra note 123, at 31.
219. (citing J. Virgoe, International Governance of a Possible Geoengineering Intervention To Combat Climate Change, 95 CLIMATIC CHANGE 103, para. 3 (2009)).
220. See HOUSE OF COMMONS REPORT, supra note 123.
221. See UNCLOS, supra note 4, art. 87 (1) (e);
222. see also U. N. GAOR, 22nd Sess., 1516th plen. mtg. at 2-3, U. N. Doc. A/C.1/PV.1516 (Nov. 1, 1967) (Arvid Pardo of Malta, General Debate of Agenda Item 92 (continued));
223. INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL LAW AND POLICY 482 (David Hunter et al. eds., 3d ed. 2007) (explaining that this principle tends to be limited to "those areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction").
224. See, e.g., Christopher C. Joyner, The Antarctic Minerals Negotiating Process, 81 AM. J. INT'L L. 888 (1987).
225. UNFCCC, supra note 101, pmbl. para. 1;
226. see also A. Res. 43/53, pmbl. Para. 2, U. N. Doc. A/RES/43/53 (Dec. 6, 1988);
227. Report of the Second Committee, Conservation of Climate as Part of the Common Heritage of Mankind, Agenda item 148, U. N. Doc. A/43/905 (Nov. 30, 1988).
228. Alan E. Boyle, The Rio Convention on Biological Diversity, in INTERNATIONAL LAW AND THE CONSERVATION OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY 33, 40 (Michael Bowman & Catherine Redgwell eds., 1996) (arguing that unlike "common heritage", the concept of "common concern" does not internationalize ownership of resources. Rather, it acknowledges that states should manage their own resources with an eye toward the good of the international community at large).
229. Tania Voon, Sizing up the WTO: Trade-Environment Conflict and the Kyoto Protocol, 10 J. TRANSNAT'L L. & POL'Y 71, 86 (2000) (suggesting that "[t]he global ownership of and responsibility for the earth's atmosphere has been captured in such phrases as 'common property', 'common heritage', 'common concern' and 'common interest.' Where shared resources (such as the earth's atmosphere) are limited and expendable (or capable of suffering irreversible damage), principles of equitable utilization arise. To the extent that one country's use of these resources will limit or prevent their use by other countries, the interests of those other countries should be considered.").
230. See generally Laura Thorns, A Comparative Analysis of International Regimes on Ozone and Climate Change with Implications for Regime Design, 41 COLUM. J. TRANSNAT'L L. 795 (2003).