Cybersecurity: A pre-history

Intelligence and National Security

Volumn 27, Issue 5, 2012, Pages 781-799

  Warner, Michael ^a  

^a AMERICAN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84867297056     PISSN: 02684527     EISSN: 17439019     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/02684527.2012.708530     Document Type: Article

References (49)

1. Thomas R. Johnson, American Cryptology During the Cold War, 1945-1989, Book II, Centralization Wins, 1960-1972 (National Security Agency: Center for Cryptologic History 1995) p.368 http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB260/nsa-3.pdf.
2. Thomas R. Johnson, American Cryptology During the Cold War, 1945-1989, Book II, Centralization Wins, 1960-1972 (National Security Agency: Center for Cryptologic History 1995) p.368 http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB260/nsa-3.pdf.
3. See also, B. Peters, 'Security Considerations in a Multi-programmed Computer System', 1967 Spring Joint Computer Conference, AFIPS Proa, vol 30, 1967, pp.283-6 http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1465524&dl=ACM&coll=DL&CFID=44685134&CFTOKEN=30141640 (accessed 26 September 2011).
4. Willis H. Ware, 'Security and Privacy in Computer Systems', remarks at the 1967 Spring Joint Computer Conference, p.11 http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/papers/2005/P3544.pdf (accessed 26 September 2011)
5. nd Session, 1966
6. 'EDV abgezapft', Der Spiegel, 14 April 1969 http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-45702341.html (accessed 26 September 2011)
7. The ubiquitous Markus Wolf sheds additional light on this operation in Markus Wolf with Anne McElvoy, Man Without a Face: The Autobiography of Communism's Greatest Spymaster (New York: PublicAffairs 1997) p.201.
8. Report of the Defense Science Board Task Force on Computer Security, Security Controls for Computer Systems [the Ware Report], published by RAND for the Office of the Director of Defense Research, 11 February 1970 http://seclab.cs.ucdavis.edu/projects/history/papers/ware70.pdf (accessed 26 September 2011).
9. US Senate, Select Committee on Intelligence, 'Unclassified Summary: Involvement of NSA in the Development of the Data Encryption Standard', Staff Report, April 1978 http://intelligence.senate.gov/pdfs/95nsa.pdf (accessed 26 September 2011).
10. Roger R. Schell, 'Computer Security: The Achilles' Heel of the Electronic Air Force?', Air University Review January/February (1979) http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchro-nicles/aureview/1979/jan-feb/schell.html#schell (accessed 26 September 2011).
11. Thomas R. Johnson, American Cryptology during the Cold War, 1945-1989: Book IV: Cryptologic Rebirth, 1981-1989 (National Security Agency: Center for Cryptologic History 1999) p.293 http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/cryptologic_histories/cold_war_iv.pdf (accessed 26 September 2011).
12. During the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, for example, an exercise tape inadvertently fed into an operational computer briefly made American radar operators believe they were tracking a missile; see Scott D. Sagan, The Limits of Safety: Organisations, Accidents, and Nuclear Weapons (Princeton: Princeton University Press 1993), pp.238-41
13. US Congress, General Accounting Office (Comptroller General), report to the Chairman of the Committee on Government Operations [Rep. Jack Brooks], 'NORAD's Missile Warning System: What Went Wrong?', 15 May 1981, p.13 http://archive.gao.gov/f0102/115265.pdf (accessed 26 September 2011).
14. Robert M. Gates, From the Shadows: The Ultimate Insider's Story of Five Presidents (New York: Simon 8c Schuster 1996) p.114
15. Sagan, The Limits of Safety, notes that the salience of the 1979 incident is that NORAD reported it to the Pentagon in real time; earlier such mishaps had been contained at the individual tracking sites.
16. Reagan enjoyed a private screening of WarGames the weekend it opened; his recounting of it is from Lou Cannon, President Reagan: The Role of Lifetime (New York: PublicAffairs 1991) p.38.
17. William. J. Broad, 'Computer Security Worries Military Experts', New York Times, 25 September 1983.
18. National Security Decision Directive 145, 'National Policy on Telecommunications and Automated Information Systems Security', 17 September 1984 http://www.fas.org/irp/offdocs/nsddl45.htm (accessed 11 February 2009). NSA's concerns over the security of government networks already dated back more than a decade. The Agency had created a Computer Security Center (CSC) in 1981 to guard Department of Defense systems, and it responded to NSDD-145 by transforming CSC into the National Computer Security Center
19. See Johnson, Cryptologic Rebirth, pp.295-6.
20. Linda Greenhouse, 'Computer Security Shift is Approved by Senate', New York Times, 24 December 1987
21. Donald Goldberg, 'The National Guards', OMNI Magazine, May 1987.
22. Cliff Stoll, The Cuckoo's Egg: Tracking a Spy through the Maze of Computer Espionage (New York: Doubleday 1989)
23. Goldberg, 'The National Guards', pp.44-6.
24. House Committee on Government Operations, Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, Computer Security Act of 1987, Report to accompany H.R. 145, June 11, 1987 http://csrc.nist.gov/groups/SMA/ispab/documents/csa_87.txt (accessed 26 September 2011).
25. Greenhouse, 'Computer Security Shift is Approved by Senate'. National Security Directive 42, 'National Policy for the Security of National Security Telecommunications and Information Systems', 5 July 1990 http://www.fas.org/irp/offdocs/nsd/nsd42.pdf (accessed 26 September 2011).
26. Thomas P. Rona, 'Weapon Systems and Information War' (Seattle: Boeing, 1 July 1976) p.50 http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=thomas%20p.%20rona%2C%20%E2%80%98weapon%20systems%20and%20information%20war%E2%80%99%20(seattle%3A%20boeing%2C%201%20july%201976)%20p.50.&source=web&cd=l&sqi=2&ved=0CFEQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dod.mil%2Fpubs%2Ffoi%2Fhomeland_defense%2Fmissile_defense_agency%2F09-F-0070WeaponSystems_and_Information_War.pdf&:ei=4NkWUJaKKeHr6wHmyoHoDg&usg=AFQjCNGGlcfmXsy_BqwAWZre8AOrUN_pGg&cad=rja. Thinkers in the Soviet Union seemed to pondered similar ideas, like the notion of 'reflexive control', at roughly the same time
27. see James Adams, The Next World War: Computers are the Weapons & the Front Line is Everywhere (New York: Simon &c Schuster 1998) pp.235-6.
28. Thomas C. Reed, At the Abyss: An Insider's History of the Cold War (New York: Ballantine 2004) pp.268-9.
29. Nikolai Brusnitsin, Openness and Espionage (Moscow: Military Publishing House 1990), pp.28-9. Brusnitsin, a lieutenant general, was then Deputy Chairman of the State Technical Commission of the USSR.
30. Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Memorandum of Policy 30, 'Command and Control Warfare', 8 March 1993 http://dodreports.com/pdf/ada389344.pdf (accessed 26 September 2011).
31. Secretary of the Air Force and Chief of Staff of the Air Force, 'Cornerstones of Information Warfare', 1995 http://www.c4i.org/cornerstones.html (accessed 26 September 2011)
32. Adams, The Next World War, pp.238-9, 244
33. Wang Pufeng, 'The Challenge of Information Warfare', China Military Science, Spring 1995 http://www.fas.org/irp/world/china/docs/iw_mg_wang.htm (accessed 14 September 2011).
34. Wei Jincheng, 'Information War: A New Form of People's War', Liberation Army Daily, 25 June 1996 http://www.fas.org/irp/world/china/docs/iw_wei.htm (accessed 14 September 2011).
35. [Author's name redacted], 'Computer Virus Infections: Is NSA Vulnerable?', Cryptologic Quarterly 4/Fall (1985) http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/cryptologic_quarterly/com-putervirus.pdf.
36. National Academy of Science, Computer Science and Telecommunications Board, 'Computers at Risk: Safe Computing in the Information Age' (Washington: National Academy Press 1991) http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=1581&:page=7 (accessed 26 September 2011).
37. Joint Security Commission [Jeffrey H. Smith, Chairman], 'Redefining Security: A Report to the Secretary of Defense and the Director of Central Intelligence', 28 February 1994 http://www.fas.org/sgp/library/jsc/index.html (accessed 26 September 2011).
38. Roger C. Molander, Andrew S. Riddile and Peter A. Wilson, Strategic Information Warfare: A New Face of War (Santa Monica, CA: RAND 1996) pp.xi, xvii, 3, 9, 31 http://www.rand.org/pubs/monograph_reports/2005/MR661.pdf (accessed 30 November 2011).
39. US Congress, General Accounting Office, 'Information Security: Computer Attacks at Department of Defense Pose Increasing Risks', Technical Report GAO/AIMD-96-84, 22 May 1996 http://www.fas.org/irp/gao/aim96084.htm (accessed 26 September 2011)
40. Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition &c Technology, 'Report of the Defense Science Board Task Force on Information Warfare-Defense (IW-D)', November 1996 http://cryptome.org/iwd.htm (accessed 26 September 2011).
41. President's Commission on Critical Infrastructure Protection, Final Report, Critical Foundations: Protecting America's Infrastructures, October 1997, p.10 http://www.fas.org/sgp/library/pccip.pdf (accessed 14 September 2011).
42. Kenneth A. Minihan, Director, National Security Agency, 'Cyber Attack: Is Our Nation at Risk?', testimony before the Senate Governmental Affairs Committee, 24 June 1998 http://www.defense.gov/speeches/speech.aspx?speechid=704 (accessed 26 September 2011)
43. Transcript of a press conference at the Pentagon held by Kenneth H. Bacon, Assistant Secretary of Defense for Public Affairs, 16 April 1998 http://www.defense.gov/transcripts/transcript.aspx?transcriptid=793 (accessed 14 September 2011)
44. See also Bill Gertz, 'Eligible Receiver', Washington Times, 16 April 1998 http://www.deaddrop.com/InfoSec/Papers/EligibleReceiver.html
45. John J. Hamre, Deputy Secretary of Defense, speech to the Fortune 500 CIO Forum, Aspen, Colorado, 21 July 1998 http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/1998_hr/98-06-llhamre.htm (accessed 14 September 2011).
46. Minihan, 'Cyber Attack: Is Our Nation at Risk?
47. Transcript of a press conference by Kenneth H. Bacon, http://www.defense.gov/transcripts/transcript.aspx?transcriptid=793
48. 'Hackers Victimize CalTSO', Los Angeles Times, 9 June 2001
49. James Adams, 'Virtual Defense', Foreign Affairs 80/3 (2001) p.99.