Rendering difference visible: The Kenyan state and its somali citizens

African Affairs

Volumn 111, Issue 445, 2012, Pages 615-639

  Lochery, Emma ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CITIZENSHIP; ETHNICITY; GOVERNMENT; INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK; NATIONAL SECURITY; POLITICAL POWER; STATE BUILDING; TERRITORIALITY;

ETHIOPIA; KENYA; SOMALI;

EID: 84867115831     PISSN: 00019909     EISSN: 14682621     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/afraf/ads059     Document Type: Article

References (125)

1. This is similar to Foucauldian approaches that have been used to analyse the politics of identity in Israel. See for example Helga Tawil-Souri, 'Colored identity: the politics and materiality of ID cards in Palestine/Israel', Social Text 29, 2 (2011), pp. 67-97.
2. James Scott, Seeing Like a State: How certain schemes to improve the human condition have failed (Yale University Press, New Haven, CT, 1998).
3. Günther Schlee has written on this trend in pastoralist areas
4. see Schlee, 'Territorialising ethnicity: the political ecology of pastoralism in northern Kenya and southern Ethiopia' (Working Paper 121, Max Planck Institute for Social Anthropology, 2010).
5. Jean-François Bayart, The State in Africa: The politics of the belly, (Longman, London, 1993).
6. Samson Bezabeh, 'Citizenship and the logic of sovereignty in Djibouti', African Affairs 110, 441 (2011), pp. 587-606.
7. See Kenya National Human Rights Commission (KNHRC), 'An identity crisis? A study on the issuance of national identity cards in Kenya' (KNHRC, Nairobi, 2007)
8. Abraham Korir Sing'Oei, 'Citizenship in Kenya: the Nubian case' in Brad K. Blitz and Maureen Lynch (eds), Statelessness and Citizenship: A comparative study on the benefits of nationality (Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, 2011), pp. 45-65.
9. Bezabeh, 'Citizenship'.
10. The majority of the research was conducted in and involved 25 semi-structured interviews about the screening with Kenyan Somalis, including NGO workers, religious leaders, lawyers, and politicians in Nairobi and Garissa. The 2010 fieldwork was part of a British Institute in Eastern Africa project on the economic history of northern Kenya directed by David Anderson. Hannah Elliott, Hassan Kochore, Badr Shariff, and I carried out over 100 semi-structured interviews in Nairobi, Isiolo, Marsabit, and Moyale.2008
11. Bronwen Manby, Struggles for Citizenship in Africa (Zed Books, London, 2009).
12. John Campbell, 'The enduring problem of statelessness in the Horn of Africa: how nation-states and Western courts (re)define nationality', International Journal of Refugee Law 23, 4 (2011), pp. 656-79
13. Bezabeh, 'Citizenship', p. 599.
14. Tobias Hagmann and Didier Péclard, 'Negotiating statehood: dynamics of power and domination in Africa', Development and Change 41, 4 (2010), pp. 539-62.
15. This draws on John Torpey, The Invention of the Passport: Surveillance, citizenship and the state (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2000).
16. Primarily Isaaq and Harti Somali served with the British in the Kings African Rifles or worked for early white settlers.
17. The area was renamed Northern Province in 1925 and Northern Frontier Province in 1947. NFD is most commonly used when referring to the colonial era. See Nene Mburu, Bandits on the Border: The last frontier in the search for Somali unity (Red Sea Press, Trenton, NJ, 2005), p. 47.
18. Ioan M. Lewis, A Modern History of the Somali: Nation and state in the Horn of Africa (James Currey, Oxford, 2002), pp. 183-4
19. Mohammed I. Farah, From Ethnic Response to Clan Identity: A study of state penetration among Somali nomadic pastoral society of northeastern Kenya (University of Uppsala, Uppsala, 1993), p. 66.
20. See the 1902 Outlying Districts Act, Closed District Ordinance of 1926, and the Special District Administrative Ordinances of 1934. The latter were preserved until 1997 as the Special Districts (Administration) Act, Chapter 105, Laws of Kenya. See Ahmed Issack Hassan, 'North Eastern Province and the Constitutional Review Process' (unpublished paper, Nairobi, 2006
21. See Lewis, A Modern History, pp. 184-92.
22. 'Shifta' means 'bandit', from the Semitic languages of Ethiopia. For a brief history of the war, see Hannah Whittaker, 'Pursuing pastoralists: the stigma of shifta during the "Shifta War" in Kenya, 1963-68', Eras 10 (November 2008), http://arts.monash.edu.au/publications/eras/edition-10/whittaker-article.pdf
23. The North Eastern Province and Contiguous Districts Regulations came under the Preservation of Public Security Act. For an account of the emergency regime in the NEP, see Kathurima M'Inoti, 'Beyond the "Emergency" in the North Eastern Province: an analysis of the use and abuse of emergency powers', Nairobi Law Monthly 41 1992), pp. 37-42.
24. See Mburu, Bandits, pp. 152-4
25. Alex de Waal, Famine Crimes: Politics and the disaster relief industry in Africa (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1997), pp. 40-2
26. Interviews, Isiolo, Marsabit, and Moyale, April to September 2010.
27. S. Abdi Sheikh, Blood on the Runway: The Wagalla massacre of 1984 (Northern Publishing House, Nairobi, 2007)
28. Hashi Mohammed, Wagalla Massacre: Human rights abuses against minorities in East Africa and its consequences (African Studies, University of Oxford, unpublished MSc dissertation, 2009).
29. Daily Nation, 'Somali bid to recruit Kenyans', 15 October 1977, p. 1.
30. Daily Nation, 'Somali agents to be expelled', 17 October 1977, p. 1.
31. Marc-Antoine Pérouse de Montclos, 'Elections among the Kenya Somali' in Alamin Mazrui, Marcel Rutten, and Francois Grignon (eds), Out for the Count: The 1997 general elections and prospects for democracy in Kenya (Fountain Publishers, Oxford, 2001), pp. 296-314
32. See Africa Watch, Kenya: Taking liberties (Africa Watch, London, 1991), pp. 342-345
33. New African, 'Scandal of the ivory smugglers', November 1988, pp. 36-7.
34. Weekly Review, 'The fight against poachers: police commissioner Kilonzo tells of government efforts', 18 November 1988, pp. 12-14
35. John Thuo, 'Moi: Shoot poachers on the spot', Kenya Times, 14 September 1988, p. 1.
36. Paul Muhoho, 'Adamson: all 3 suspects held', Kenya Times, 25 August 1989, p. 1.
37. Eric Shimoli and Kenneth Mwema, 'President names man behind banditry', Kenya Times, 1 September 1989, pp. 1-2.
38. George Munji, 'Shed nomadism for development', Kenya Times, 4 March 1989, p. 14.
39. Africa Watch, Kenya: Taking liberties, p. 292
40. Ogala Muga, 'Nomadic herdsmen told to move to home districts', Kenya Times, 26 May 1989, p. 44
41. Interviews revealed the role of the paramilitary General Service Unit in forcing people to move. To avoid arrest, young men
42. The bush away from the rest of the group during these journeys; women meanwhile were at great risk of rape by Kenyan military.
43. Matatus are privately run minibus taxis popular as a means of public transportation.
44. Africa Watch, Kenya: Taking liberties, pp. 296-7
45. Samuel Nduati, 'Muslims protest arrests: police interfered with worshippers, says leader', Daily Nation, 22 May 1989, p. 3
46. Alphonce Mung'ahu, 'Hundreds of aliens in city courts', Standard, 23 May 1989, p. 3.
47. David Throup and Charles Hornsby, Multi-Party Politics in Kenya (James Currey, Oxford, 1998), pp. 31-40
48. Paul Goldsmith, 'The Somali impact on Kenya, 1990-1993: the view from outside the camps' in Hussein Adam and R. Ford (eds), Mending Rips in the Sky: Options for Somali communities in the 21st century (Red Sea Press, Lawrenceville, NJ, 1997), pp. 461-83
49. Weekly Review, 'Political sideshow: North-Eastern Province leaders have a public disagreement', 23 December 1988, pp. 17-19
50. Charles Kimathi, 'Poachers paid by Somalis, say MPs', Daily Nation, 8 December 1988, p. 1.
51. Eric Shimoli, 'How poaching is funded - MPs: NEP leaders blame aliens', Kenya Times, 8 December 1988, p. 10.
52. Kenya Times, 'Leaders disagree', 12 December 1988, pp. 3
53. Weekly Review, 'Political sideshow'.
54. Kenya Times, 'Allow harmony to take root in NEP', 21 January 1989, p. 6.
55. Daniel Kamanga, 'Leaders vow to wipe out bandits', Kenya Times, 18 January 1989, p. 4.
56. Kenya Times, 'Allow harmony
57. Weekly Review, 'Ambivalent neighbourliness: a series of events militates against strenuous mutual efforts to warm up relations', 17 February 1989, pp. 15-16.
58. Gray Phombeah and Chris Musyoka, '5 Somalis still being probed', Kenya Times, 15 February 1989, p. 11.
59. Interviews revealed uncertainty over the name of the committee; I use Africa Watch's terminology for simplicity's sake. Africa Watch, Kenya: Taking liberties, p. 298.
60. Ahmed Khalif and Mohammed Abdi Sheikh, confidential letter to Hon. Daniel Toroitich Arap Moi MP, President of the Republic of Kenya, Nairobi (October 1989, in possession of author), pp. 3-4.
61. Interview, former civil servant, Garissa, 13 April 2008.
62. Jeremiah Aurah, 'Kenya to vet all Somalis', Kenya Times, 10 November 1989, p. 1
63. Njau, 'All Somalis to be screened Monday', Daily Nation, 10 November 1989, p. 1
64. Standard, 'Check on Somalis announced', 10 November 1989, pp. 1
65. By the first day of the screening, some locations changed. See Gichuru Njihia and Irungu Ndirangu, 'Huge turnout as screening starts', Daily Nation, 14 November 1989, p. 1.
66. Government of Kenya, Gazette Notices Nos 5319 and 5320, 7 November 1989, Kenya Gazette, 10 November 1989, p. 1522.
67. Interview, NGO activist and former teacher from Garissa, Nairobi, 16 April 2008.
68. This is reflected in both press coverage and interviews.
69. This is evident from interviews and dates on screening cards.
70. Eliud Miring'uh, 'Lawyers attack Somali vetting', Kenya Times, 15 November 1989, p. 2.
71. Gitobu Imanyara, 'Why the screening of Kenyan Somalis cannot be constitutionally supported', Nairobi Law Monthly 19 (1989).
72. Interview, former civil servant, Garissa, 13 April 2008
73. Interview, Ali Bunow Korane, Nairobi, 1 April 2008.
74. Imanyara, 'Screening'.
75. Daily Nation, 'Somalis flee to Uganda', 15 December 1989
76. Africa Watch, Kenya: Taking liberties, p. 22.
77. Abdalla Riyami, 'Somalis pour into Tanzania', Kenya Times, 23 November 1989
78. Warambo Owino and Stan Luchebeleli, 'Somali killer of 21 grabbed', Kenya Times, 6 December 1989
79. Eric Shimoli, 'Dar to expel 340 fleeing Somalis', Kenya Times, 8 December 1989.
80. Africa Watch, Kenya: Taking liberties, p. 301
81. see also Africa Watch, 'Screening of ethnic Somalis: the cruel consequences of Kenya's passbook system', News from Africa Watch, London, 5 September 1990, p. 21.
82. In Arabic, diya.
83. Africa Watch, Kenya: Taking liberties, p. 302.
84. Kenya Times, 'Documents impounded for scrutiny', 24 November 1989, pp. 1-12.
85. Hassan, 'North Eastern Province', p. 11.
86. Standard, 'MPs kick off screening exercise', 14 November 1989, pp. 1-12.
87. Weekly Review, 'Tempers flare over screening', 24 November 1989, p. 17.
88. Weekly Review, 'Leaders break rank', 1 December 1989, p. 13.
89. Mohammed K. Ibrahim, 'Somali screening', Weekly Review, 24 November 1989, p. 4.
90. Interview, Mohammed K. Ibrahim, Nairobi 19 March 2008.
91. Gichuru Njihia, 'Screening of Somalis today', Daily Nation, 13 November 1989, p. 28.
92. Bakr Ogle, 'Alien Somalis flee Kenya', Standard, 13 November 1989, p. 1.
93. Makau Niko, 'Society condemns Somali screening', Daily Nation, 15 November 1989, p. 36.
94. Njihia and Ndirangu, 'Huge turnout'.
95. Hussein Mohamed, 'Three prominent Somalis nabbed', Kenya Times, 16 November 1989, p. 4.
96. Wangui Gachie, 'Somalis in protest demo', Standard, 17 November 1989, pp. 1-4.
97. See 'Moi attacks aliens' demo', Kenya Times, 18 November 1989, pp. 1-2
98. Lee Njiru, 'Somalis demo an insult to us - Moi', Daily Nation, 18 November 1989, pp. 1-22
99. Irungu Ndirangu, 'Screening: govt warns aliens', Daily Nation, 18 November 1989, p. 5.
100. 'Leaders back screening', Daily Nation, 20 November 1989, p. 3.
101. Interview, female resident and development worker, Garissa, 14 April 2008.
102. Interview, Mohammed K. Ibrahim, Nairobi, 19 March 2008.
103. The following account of the detainees and first major deportation is a synopsis of accounts found in Africa Watch, 'Screening', pp. 9-17
104. Africa Watch, Kenya: Taking liberties, pp. 116-314
105. Africa Watch, 'Screening', p. 14.
106. Africa Watch, Kenya: Taking liberties, p. 314.
107. Africa Watch, 'Screening', pp. 16-17.
108. Africa Watch, Kenya: Taking liberties, p. 320.
109. Interview, Garissa businessman, Nairobi, 2 April 2008.
110. Interviews, Kenyan Somali lawyers and businesspeople, Nairobi, March-April 2008.
111. Weekly Review, 'Controversial aftermath', 22 December 1989, pp. 7-8.
112. See the map 'Mogadishu: principal zones of political influence' in John Drysdale, Whatever Happened to Somalia? A tale of tragic blunders (Haan, London, 1994).
113. See Africa Watch, Somalia: A government at war with its own people (Africa Watch, London, 1990).
114. Interview, Hassan Lakicha, Yusuf Gabayare's former lawyer, Nairobi, 1 April 2008.
115. Daily Nation, 'Deported Somali's house burgled', 8 January 1990, p. 28.
116. Shimoli and Mwema, 'President names man behind banditry', Kenya Times, 1 September 1989.
117. Waweru Mugo, 'Somali leaders reject rules on IDs', The Nation, 29 May 2002,http://www.somaliuk.com/News/archive.php?month=5year=20022008
118. Kenya National Human Rights Commission (KNHRC), 'An identity crisis? A study on the issuance of national identity cards in Kenya' (KNHRC, Nairobi, 2007), p. 16.
119. Interview, Garissa resident and businessman, Garissa, 14 April 2008.
120. KTN, 'Kimemia on property audit', 8 December 2009, (8 July 2012). http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0PVCcpBs9UQ
121. Interview, civil servant, Nairobi, 5 April, 2010. See Abdullahi Jamaa, 'Our businesses are clean and legal, Somali traders say', New Dawn 3, 9 (15 February-1 March 2010), 2011
122. Morris Aron, 'The puzzle of property boom in Kenya', The Standard, 6 December 2010http://www.standardmedia. co.ke/?incl=commentsid=2000024096cid=457articleID=20000240962012).
123. John Ngirachu, 'Govt to weed out Shabaab sympathisers in Nairobi swoop', Daily Nation, 19 October 2011 http://allafrica.com/stories/201110191112.html
124. For example, in January 2011, it was revealed that a government memo instructed officials in Muslim-dominated areas to request extra documents from Muslim Kenyans of Arab and Asian descent applying for identity cards. See 'Kenya: ID cards vetting sidelines Muslims, court told', Daily Nation, 13 January 2011, http://allafrica.com/stories/201101140158.html2012
125. On Ethiopia and Kenya, see Schlee, 'Territorialising ethnicity