The infant skin barrier: Can we preserve, protect, and enhance the barrier?

Dermatology Research and Practice

Volumn 2012, Issue , 2012, Pages

  Telofski, Lorena S ^a   Morello, A Peter ^b   MacK Correa, M Catherine ^a   Stamatas, Georgios N ^a  

^a JOHNSON AND JOHNSON   (United States)

^b Evidence Scientific Solutions   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CALCINEURIN INHIBITOR; CORTICOSTEROID; EMOLLIENT AGENT; POLYMER; SURFACTANT;

ATOPIC DERMATITIS; BIRTH; CHEMICAL COMPOSITION; DERMIS; EPIDERMIS; HUMAN; HYGIENE; INFANT SKIN BARRIER; IRRITANT DERMATITIS; IRRITANT DIAPER DERMATITIS; NEWBORN; PH; PHOTOTHERAPY; PREMATURITY; REVIEW; SKIN CARE; SKIN FUNCTION; SKIN PROTECTION; SKIN STRUCTURE; SKIN SURFACE; SYSTEMIC THERAPY;

EID: 84866975228     PISSN: None     EISSN: 16876113     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1155/2012/198789     Document Type: Review

References (148)

1. Chiou Y. B., Blume-Peytavi U., Stratum corneum maturation. A review of neonatal skin function. Skin Pharmacology and Physiology 2004 17 2 57 66 2-s2.0-1342280466 10.1159/000076015
2. Stamatas G. N., Nikolovski J., Luedtke M. A., Kollias N., Wiegand B. C., Infant skin microstructure assessed in vivo differs from adult skin in organization and at the cellular level. Pediatric Dermatology 2010 27 2 125 131 2-s2.0-77951275162 10.1111/j.1525-1470.2009.00973.x
3. Larson A. A., Dinulos J. G. H., Cutaneous bacterial infections in the newborn. Current Opinion in Pediatrics 2005 17 4 481 485 2-s2.0-23344443106 10.1097/01.mop.0000171321.68806.bd
4. Meyer-Hoffert U., Zimmermann A., Czapp M., Bartels J., Koblyakova Y., Gläser R., Schröder J. M., Gerstel U., Flagellin delivery by Pseudomonas aeruginosa rhamnolipids induces the antimicrobial protein psoriasin in human skin. PLoS ONE 2011 6 1 2-s2.0-79551527250 10.1371/journal.pone.0016433 e16433
5. Elias P. M., The skin barrier as an innate immune element. Seminars in Immunopathology 2007 29 1 3 14 2-s2.0-34748850100 10.1007/s00281-007-0060-9
6. Yosipovitch G., Maayan-Metzger A., Merlob P., Sirota L., Skin barrier properties in different body areas in neonates. Pediatrics 2000 106 1, part 1 105 108 2-s2.0-0033917685
7. Stamatas G. N., Nikolovski J., Mack M. C., Kollias N., Infant skin physiology and development during the first years of life: a review of recent findings based on in vivo studies. International Journal of Cosmetic Science 2011 33 1 17 24 2-s2.0-78751661894 10.1111/j.1468-2494.2010.00611.x
8. Hoath S. B., Maibach H. I., Neonatal Skin: Structure and Function 2003 2nd New York, NY, USA Marcel Dekker
9. Evans N. J., Rutter N., Development of the epidermis in the newborn. Biology of the Neonate 1986 49 2 74 80 2-s2.0-0022479751
10. Fluhr J. W., Darlenski R., Taieb A., Hachem J. P., Baudouin C., Msika P., de Belilovsky C., Berardesca E., Functional skin adaptation in infancyalmost complete but not fully competent. Experimental Dermatology 2010 19 6 483 492 2-s2.0-77954059373 10.1111/j.1600-0625.2009.01023.x
11. Nikolovski J., Stamatas G. N., Kollias N., Wiegand B. C., Barrier function and water-holding and transport properties of infant stratum corneum are different from adult and continue to develop through the first year of life. The Journal of Investigative Dermatology 2008 128 7 1728 1736 2-s2.0-45549088607 10.1038/sj.jid.5701239
12. Capone K. A., Dowd S. E., Stamatas G. N., Nikolovski J., Diversity of the human skin microbiome early in life. The Journal of Investigative Dermatology 2011 131 10 2026 2032 2-s2.0-79959339446 10.1038/jid.2011.168
13. Kalia Y. N., Nonato L. B., Lund C. H., Guy R. H., Development of skin barrier function in premature infants. The Journal of Investigative Dermatology 1998 111 2 320 326 2-s2.0-0031926856 10.1046/j.1523-1747.1998.00289.x
14. Verdier-Sévrain S., Bonté F., Skin hydration: a review on its molecular mechanisms. Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology 2007 6 2 75 82 2-s2.0-34249800666 10.1111/j.1473-2165.2007.00300.x
15. Walker L., Downe S., Gomez L., Skin care in the well term newborn: two systematic reviews. Birth 2005 32 3 224 228 2-s2.0-32944455451
16. Lane A. T., Drost S. S., Effects of repeated application of emollient cream to premature neonates' skin. Pediatrics 1993 92 3 415 419 2-s2.0-0027199255
17. Nopper A. J., Horii K. A., Sookdeo-Drost S., Wang T. H., Mancini A. J., Lane A. T., Topical ointment therapy benefits premature infants. The Journal of Pediatrics 1996 128 5, part 1 660 669 2-s2.0-0029913031 10.1016/S0022-3476(96) 80132-6
18. Beeram M., Olvera R., Krauss D., Loughran C., Petty M., Effects of topical emollient therapy on infants at or less than 27 weeks' gestation. Journal of the National Medical Association 2006 98 2 261 264 2-s2.0-31944436275
19. Garcia Bartels N., Scheufele R., Prosch F., Schink T., Proquitté H., Wauer R. R., Blume-Peytavi U., Effect of standardized skin care regimens on neonatal skin barrier function in different body areas. Pediatric Dermatology 2010 27 1 1 8 2-s2.0-77649164318 10.1111/j.1525-1470.2009.01068.x
20. Simpson E. L., Berry T. M., Brown P. A., Hanifin J. M., A pilot study of emollient therapy for the primary prevention of atopic dermatitis. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 2010 63 4 587 593 2-s2.0-77956766210 10.1016/j.jaad.2009.11.011
21. Walters R. M., Fevola M. J., LiBrizzi J. J., Martin K., Designing cleansers for the unique needs of baby skin. Cosmetics & Toiletries 2008 123 12 53 60
22. McNally N. J., Williams H. C., Phillips D. R., Smallman-Raynor M., Lewis S., Venn A., Britton J., Atopic eczema and domestic water hardness. The Lancet 1998 352 9127 527 531 2-s2.0-0032529531 10.1016/S0140-6736(98)01402-0
23. Miyake Y., Yokoyama T., Yura A., Iki M., Shimizu T., Ecological association of water hardness with prevalence of childhood atopic dermatitis in a Japanese urban area. Environmental Research 2004 94 1 33 37 2-s2.0-0344120318 10.1016/S0013-9351(03)00068-9
24. Thomas K. S., Dean T., O'Leary C., Sach T. H., Koller K., Frost A., Williams H. C., A randomised controlled trial of ion-exchange water softeners for the treatment of eczema in children. PLoS Medicine 2011 8 2 2-s2.0-79952271919 10.1371/journal.pmed.1000395 e1000395
25. Thomas K. S., Koller K., Dean T., O'Leary C. J., Sach T. H., Frost A., Pallett I., Crook A. M., Meredith S., Nunn A. J., Burrows N., Pollock I., Graham-Brown R., O'Toole E., Potter D., Williams H. C., A multicentre randomised controlled trial and economic evaluation of ion-exchange water softeners for the treatment of eczema in children: the Softened Water Eczema Trial (SWET). Health Technology Assessment 2011 15 8 v-vi, 1 156 2-s2.0-79951632577 10.3310/hta15080
26. Pabst R. C., Starr K. P., Qaiyumi S., Schwalbe R. S., Gewolb I. H., The effect of application of Aquaphor on skin condition, fluid requirements, and bacterial colonization in very low birth weight infants. Journal of Perinatology 1999 19 4 278 283 2-s2.0-0033138601
27. Buraczewska I., Berne B., Lindberg M., Törmä H., Lodén M., Changes in skin barrier function following long-term treatment with moisturizers, a randomized controlled trial. The British Journal of Dermatology 2007 156 3 492 498 2-s2.0-33846996771 10.1111/j.1365-2133.2006.07685.x
28. Darmstadt G. L., Saha S. K., Ahmed A. S. M. N. U., Ahmed S., Chowdhury M. A. K. A., Law P. A., Rosenberg R. E., Black R. E., Santosham M., Effect of skin barrier therapy on neonatal mortality rates in preterm infants in Bangladesh: a randomized, controlled, clinical trial. Pediatrics 2008 121 3 522 529 2-s2.0-40949128340 10.1542/peds.2007-0213
29. Blume-Peytavi U., Cork M. J., Faergemann J., Szczapa J., Vanaclocha F., Gelmetti C., Bathing and cleansing in newborns from day 1 to first year of life: recommendations from a European round table meeting. Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology 2009 23 7 751 759 2-s2.0-66749085564 10.1111/j.1468-3083.2009.03140.x
30. Fairley J. A., Rasmussen J. E., Comparison of stratum corneum thickness in children and adults. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 1983 8 5 652 654 2-s2.0-0020532141
31. Saijo S., Tagami H., Dry skin of newborn infants: functional analysis of the stratum corneum. Pediatric Dermatology 1991 8 2 155 159 2-s2.0-0025989912
32. Hoeger P. H., Enzmann C. C., Skin physiology of the neonate and young infant: a prospective study of functional skin parameters during early infancy. Pediatric Dermatology 2002 19 3 256 262 2-s2.0-0036279814 10.1046/j.1525-1470. 2002.00082.x
33. Visscher M. O., Chatterjee R., Munson K. A., Pickens W. L., Hoath S. B., Changes in diapered and nondiapered infant skin over the first month of life. Pediatric Dermatology 2000 17 1 45 51 2-s2.0-0034034288 10.1046/j.1525-1470. 2000.01711.x
34. Giusti F., Martella A., Bertoni L., Seidenari S., Skin barrier, hydration, and pH of the skin of infants under 2 years of age. Pediatric Dermatology 2001 18 2 93 96 2-s2.0-0035013520 10.1046/j.1525-1470.2001. 018002093.x
35. Wanke I., Steffen H., Christ C., Krismer B., Götz F., Peschel A., Schaller M., Schittek B., Skin commensals amplify the innate immune response to pathogens by activation of distinct signaling pathways. The Journal of Investigative Dermatology 2011 131 2 382 390 2-s2.0-78651383015 10.1038/jid.2010.328
36. Hanley K., Jiang Y., Elias P. M., Feingold K. R., Williams M. L., Acceleration of barrier ontogenesis in vitro through air exposure. Pediatric Research 1997 41 2 293 299 2-s2.0-0031033781
37. Rawlings A. V., Trends in stratum corneum research and the management of dry skin conditions. International Journal of Cosmetic Science 2003 25 1-2 63 95 2-s2.0-0038678101 10.1046/j.1467-2494.2003.00174.x
38. Rawlings A. V., Scott L. R., Harding C. R., Bowser P. A., Stratum corneum moisturization at the molecular level. The Journal of Investigative Dermatology 1994 103 5 731 740 2-s2.0-0028139381
39. Machado M., Salgado T. M., Hadgraft J., Lane M. E., The relationship between transepidermal water loss and skin permeability. International Journal of Pharmaceutics 2010 384 1-2 73 77 2-s2.0-70649103020 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2009. 09.044
40. Rawlings A., Harding C., Watkinson A., Banks J., Ackerman C., Sabin R., The effect of glycerol and humidity on desmosome degradation in stratum corneum. Archives of Dermatological Research 1995 287 5 457 464 2-s2.0-0029052513
41. Tagami H., Kanamaru Y., Inoue K., Water sorption-desorption test of the skin in vivo for functional assessment of the stratum corneum. The Journal of Investigative Dermatology 1982 78 5 425 428 2-s2.0-0020049712
42. Bouwstra J. A., de Graaff A., Gooris G. S., Nijsse J., Wiechers J. W., van Aelst A. C., Water distribution and related morphology in human stratum corneum at different hydration levels. The Journal of Investigative Dermatology 2003 120 5 750 758 2-s2.0-0037622077 10.1046/j.1523-1747.2003.12128.x
43. Sato J., Yanai M., Hirao T., Denda M., Water content and thickness of the stratum corneum contribute to skin surface morphology. Archives of Dermatological Research 2000 292 8 412 417 2-s2.0-0033854291
44. Pierard G. E., Goffin V., Hermanns-Le T., Pierard-Franchimont C., Corneocyte desquamation. International Journal of Molecular Medicine 2000 6 2 217 221 2-s2.0-0034243142
45. Engelke M., Jensen J. M., Ekanayake-Mudiyanselage S., Proksch E., Effects of xerosis and ageing on epidermal proliferation and differentiation. The British Journal of Dermatology 1997 137 2 219 225 2-s2.0-0030818054
46. Rogiers V., EEMCO Group, EEMCO guidance for the assessment of transepidermal water loss in cosmetic sciences. Skin Pharmacology and Applied Skin Physiology 2001 14 2 117 128 2-s2.0-17744374772 10.1159/000056341
47. Rippke F., Schreiner V., Schwanitz H. J., The acidic milieu of the horny layer: new findings on the physiology and pathophysiology of skin pH. American Journal of Clinical Dermatology 2002 3 4 261 272 2-s2.0-0036278086
48. Lund C., Kuller J., Lane A., Lott J. W., Raines D. A., Neonatal skin care: the scientific basis for practice. Neonatal Network 1999 18 4 15 27 2-s2.0-0033138470
49. Lambers H., Piessens S., Bloem A., Pronk H., Finkel P., Natural skin surface pH is on average below 5, which is beneficial for its resident flora. International Journal of Cosmetic Science 2006 28 5 359 370 2-s2.0-33748879013 10.1111/j.1467-2494.2006.00344.x
50. Askin D. F., Bacterial and fungal infections in the neonate. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic, and Neonatal Nursing 1995 24 7 635 643 2-s2.0-0029363799
51. Larsen F. Schultz, Diepgen T., Svensson A., The occurrence of atopic dermatitis in North Europe: an international questionnaire study. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 1996 34 5, part 1 760 764 2-s2.0-0029871712 10.1016/S0190-9622(96)90009-2
52. Laughter D., Istvan J. A., Tofte S. J., Hanifin J. M., The prevalence of atopic dermatitis in Oregon schoolchildren. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 2000 43 4 649 655 2-s2.0-0033772646
53. Werner Y. L. V. A., Lindberg M., Transepidermal water loss in dry and clinically normal skin in patients with atopic dermatitis. Acta Dermato-Venereologica 1985 65 2 102 105 2-s2.0-0021954377
54. Seidenari S., Giusti G., Objective assessment of the skin of children affected by atopic dermatitis: a study of pH, capacitance and TEWL in eczematous and clinically uninvolved skin. Acta Dermato-Venereologica 1995 75 6 429 433 2-s2.0-0029565336
55. Ogawa H., Yoshiike T., Atopic dermatitis: studies of skin permeability and effectiveness of topical PUVA treatment. Pediatric Dermatology 1992 9 4 383 385 2-s2.0-0026685714
56. Kong H. H., Oh J., Deming C., Temporal shifts in the skin microbiome associated with disease flares and treatment in children with atopic dermatitis. Genome Research 2012 22 5 850 859 10.1101/gr.131029.111
57. Schittek B., The antimicrobial skin barrier in patients with atopic dermatitis. Current Problems in Dermatology 2011 41 54 67 2-s2.0-79958056355 10.1159/000323296
58. Lebwohl M., Herrmann L. G., Impaired skin barrier function in dermatologic disease and repair with moisturization. Cutis; Cutaneous Medicine for the Practitioner 2005 76 6, supplement 7 12 2-s2.0-30744468830
59. Hanifin J. M., Cooper K. D., Ho V. C., Kang S., Krafchik B. R., Margolis D. J., Schachner L. A., Sidbury R., Whitmore S. E., Sieck C. K., Van Voorhees A. S., Guidelines of care for atopic dermatitis, developed in accordance with the American Academy of Dermatology (AAD)/American Academy of Dermatology Association 'Administrative Regulations for Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines' Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 2004 50 3 391 404
60. National Collaborating Centre for Women's and Children's Health, NICE clinical guideline 57. Atopic eczema in children. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence, London, UK, 2007
61. Hon K. L. E., Wong K. Y., Cheung L. K., Ha G., Lam M. C. A., Leung T. F., Chow C. M., Tang Y. M. W., Luk N. M. T., Leung A. K. C., Efficacy and problems associated with using a wet-wrap garment for children with severe atopic dermatitis. The Journal of Dermatological Treatment 2007 18 5 301 305 2-s2.0-35148896885 10.1080/09546630701567386
62. Cox H., Lloyd K., Williams H., Emollients, education and quality of life: the RCPCH care pathway for children with eczema. Archives of Disease in Childhood 2011 96 supplement 2 i19 i24 10.1136/archdischild-2011-300695
63. Stamatas G. N., Zerweck C., Grove G., Martin K. M., Documentation of impaired epidermal barrier in mild and moderate diaper dermatitis in vivo using noninvasive methods. Pediatric Dermatology 2011 28 2 99 107 2-s2.0-79955047326 10.1111/j.1525-1470.2011.01308.x
64. Adalat S., Wall D., Goodyear H., Diaper dermatitis-frequency and contributory factors in hospital attending children. Pediatric Dermatology 2007 24 5 483 488 2-s2.0-35448953564 10.1111/j.1525-1470.2007.00499.x
65. Atherton D. J., The aetiology and management of irritant diaper dermatitis. Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology 2001 15 supplement 1 1 4 2-s2.0-0034766137
66. Visscher M. O., Chatterjee R., Munson K. A., Bare D. E., Hoath S. B., Development of diaper rash in the newborn. Pediatric Dermatology 2000 17 1 52 57 2-s2.0-0034041729 10.1046/j.1525-1470.2000.01710.x
67. Atherton D. J., A review of the pathophysiology, prevention and treatment of irritant diaper dermatitis. Current Medical Research and Opinion 2004 20 5 645 649 2-s2.0-2542446120 10.1185/030079904125003575
68. Gupta A. K., Skinner A. R., Management of diaper dermatitis. International Journal of Dermatology 2004 43 11 830 834 2-s2.0-8844236176 10.1111/j.1365-4632.2004.02405.x
69. Scheinfeld N., Diaper dermatitis: a review and brief survey of eruptions of the diaper area. American Journal of Clinical Dermatology 2005 6 5 273 281 2-s2.0-27644439579 10.2165/00128071-200506050-00001
70. Shin H. T., Diaper dermatitis that does not quit. Dermatologic Therapy 2005 18 2 124 135 2-s2.0-21644458648 10.1111/j.1529-8019.2005.05013.x
71. Humphrey S., Bergman J. N., Au S., Practical management strategies for diaper dermatitis. Skin Therapy Letter 2006 11 7 1 6 2-s2.0-33750948380
72. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Fetus and Newborn. Skin care of newborns. Pediatrics 1974 54 6 682 683
73. Bergström A., Byaruhanga R., Okong P., The impact of newborn bathing on the prevalence of neonatal hypothermia in Uganda: a randomized, controlled trial. Acta Paediatrica, International Journal of Paediatrics 2005 94 10 1462 1467 2-s2.0-27144461215 10.1080/080352505100366750
74. Lund C., Kuller J., Raines D., Ecklund S., Archambault M., O'Flaherty P., Neonatal Skin Care 2007 2nd Washington, DC, USA Association of Women's Health, Obstetric and Neonatal Nurses (AWHONN)
75. National Collaborating Centre for Primary Care, NICE clinical guideline 37. Routine postnatal care of women and their babies. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence, London, UK, 2006
76. Gelmetti C., Skin cleansing in children. Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology 2001 15 supplement 1 12 15 2-s2.0-0034762932 10.1046/j.0926-9959.2001.00003.x
77. Kuehl B. L., Fyfe K. S., Shear N. H., Cutaneous cleansers. Skin Therapy Letter 2003 8 3 1 4 2-s2.0-0042330189
78. Afsar F. S., Skin care for preterm and term neonates. Clinical and Experimental Dermatology 2009 34 8 855 858 2-s2.0-72549088896 10.1111/j.1365-2230.2009.03424.x
79. Gfatter R., Hackl P., Braun F., Effects of soap and detergents on skin surface pH, stratum corneum hydration and fat content in infants. Dermatology 1997 195 3 258 262 2-s2.0-0030773662
80. Darmstadt G. L., Dinulos J. G., Neonatal skin care. Pediatric Clinics of North America 2000 47 4 757 782 2-s2.0-0033942205
81. Ananthapadmanabhan K. P., Moore D. J., Subramanyan K., Misra M., Meyer F., Cleansing without compromise: the impact of cleansers on the skin barrier and the technology of mild cleansing. Dermatologic Therapy 2004 17 supplement 1 16 25 2-s2.0-1342346653
82. Siegfried E. C., Shah P. Y., Skin care practices in the neonatal nursery: a clinical survey. Journal of Perinatology 1999 19 1 31 39 2-s2.0-0032599987
83. Dizon M. V., Galzote C., Estanislao R., Mathew N., Sarkar R., Tolerance of baby cleansers in infants: a randomized controlled trial. Indian Pediatrics 2010 47 11 959 963 2-s2.0-78651074431 10.1007/s13312-010-0161-8
84. Löffler H., Happle R., Profile of irritant patch testing with detergents: sodium lauryl sulfate, sodium laureth sulfate and alkyl polyglucoside. Contact Dermatitis 2003 48 1 26 32 2-s2.0-0037250892 10.1034/j.1600-0536.2003.480105.x
85. Charbonnier V., Morrison B. M. Jr., Paye M., Maibach H. I., Subclinical, non-erythematous irritation with an open assay model (washing): sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) versus sodium laureth sulfate (SLES). Food and Chemical Toxicology 2001 39 3 279 286 2-s2.0-0035081761 10.1016/S0278-6915(00)00132-0
86. Robinson V. C., Bergfeld W. F., Belsito D. V., Hill R. A., Klaassen C. D., Marks J. G., Shank R. C., Slaga T. J., Snyder P. W., Andersen F. A., Final report of the amended safety assessment of sodium laureth sulfate and related salts of sulfated ethoxylated alcohols. International Journal of Toxicology 2010 29 4, supplement 151S 161S 2-s2.0-77956288645 10.1177/1091581810373151
87. Subramanyan K., Role of mild cleansing in the management of patient skin. Dermatologic Therapy 2004 17 supplement 1 26 34 2-s2.0-1342325491
88. Fevola M. J., Walters R. M., LiBrizzi J. J., A new approach to formulating mild cleansers: hydrophobically-modified polymers for irritation mitigation. Polymeric Delivery of Therapeutics 2010 American Chemical Society 221 242
89. White M. I., Jenkinson D. M., Lloyd D. H., The effect of washing on the thickness of the stratum corneum in normal and atopic individuals. The British Journal of Dermatology 1987 116 4 525 530 2-s2.0-0023103088
90. Parra J. L., Paye M., EEMCO Group, EEMCO guidance for the in vivo assessment of skin surface pH. Skin Pharmacology and Applied Skin Physiology 2003 16 3 188 202 2-s2.0-0037247619 10.1159/000069756
91. Chollopetz da Cunha M. L., Procianoy R. S., Effect of bathing on skin flora of preterm newborns. Journal of Perinatology 2005 25 6 375 379 2-s2.0-20844439562 10.1038/sj.jp.7211332
92. Gallo R. L., Nakatsuji T., EEMCO Group, Microbial symbiosis with the innate immune defense system of the skin. The Journal of Investigative Dermatology 2011 131 10 1974 1980 2-s2.0-79959370007 10.1038/jid.2011.182
93. Bernhofer L. P., Barkovic S., Appa Y., Martin K. M., IL-1 α and IL-1ra secretion from epidermal equivalents and the prediction of the irritation potential of mild soap and surfactant-based consumer products. Toxicology In Vitro 1999 13 2 231 239 2-s2.0-0033038004 10.1016/S0887-2333(98)00088-5
94. Bernhofer L. P., Seiberg M., Martin K. M., The influence of the response of skin equivalent systems to topically applied consumer products by epithelial-mesenchymal interactions. Toxicology In Vitro 1999 13 2 219 229 2-s2.0-0033067023 10.1016/S0887-2333(98)00087-3
95. Hirao T., Aoki H., Yoshida T., Sato Y., Kamoda H., Elevation of interleukin 1 receptor antagonist in the stratum corneum of sun-exposed and ultraviolet B-irradiated human skin. The Journal of Investigative Dermatology 1996 106 5 1102 1107 2-s2.0-0029882117
96. Perkins M. A., Osterhues M. A., Farage M. A., Robinson M. K., A noninvasive method to assess skin irritation and compromised skin conditions using simple tape adsorption of molecular markers of inflammation. Skin Research and Technology 2001 7 4 227 237 2-s2.0-0035159620 10.1034/j.1600-0846.2001. 070405.x
97. Terui T., Hirao T., Sato Y., Uesugi T., Honda M., Iguchi M., Matsumura N., Kudoh K., Aiba S., Tagami H., An increased ratio of interleukin-1 receptor antagonist to interleukin-1 α in inflammatory skin diseases. Experimental Dermatology 1998 7 6 327 334 2-s2.0-7844242540
98. Goffin V., Paye M., Piérard G. E., Comparison of in vitro predictive tests for irritation induced by anionic surfactants. Contact Dermatitis 1995 33 1 38 41 2-s2.0-0028979167 10.1111/j.1600-0536.1995.tb00445.x
99. Eichenfield L. F., Hardaway C. A., Neonatal dermatology. Current Opinion in Pediatrics 1999 11 5 471 474 2-s2.0-0032845634 10.1097/00008480-199910000- 00017
100. Darmstadt G. L., Saha S. K., Ahmed A. S. M. N. U., Chowdhury M. A. K. A., Law P. A., Ahmed S., Alam M. A., Black R. E., Santosham M., Effect of topical treatment with skin barrier-enhancing emollients on nosocomial infections in preterm infants in Bangladesh: a randomised controlled trial. The Lancet 2005 365 9464 1039 1045 2-s2.0-15244360235 10.1016/S0140-6736(05)71140-5
101. Schürer N., Schliep V., Williams M. L., Differential utilization of linoleic and arachidonic acid by cultured human keratinocytes. Skin Pharmacology 1995 8 1-2 30 40 2-s2.0-0028938328
102. Tierney N. K., Stamatas G. N., Lodén M., Maibach H. I., Update on infant skin with special focus on dryness and the impact of moisturizers. Treatment of Dry Skin Syndrome 2012 New York, NY, USA Springer
103. Bhutta Z. A., Darmstadt G. L., Hasan B. S., Haws R. A., Community-based interventions for improving perinatal and neonatal health outcomes in developing countries: a review of the evidence. Pediatrics 2005 115 2, supplement 519 617 2-s2.0-17844392888 10.1542/peds.2004-1441
104. Lodén M., Do moisturizers work? Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology 2003 2 3-4 141 149 10.1111/j.1473-2130.2004.00062.x
105. James A. P., Bath oils in the management of dry, pruritic skin. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 1961 9 367 369 2-s2.0-73049125249
106. Stanfield J. W., Levy J., Kyriakopoulos A. A., Waldman P. M., A new technique for evaluating bath oil in the treatment of dry skin. Cutis; Cutaneous Medicine for the Practitioner 1981 28 4 458 460 2-s2.0-0019767255
107. Stender I. M., Blichmann C., Serup J., Effects of oil and water baths on the hydration state of the epidermis. Clinical and Experimental Dermatology 1990 15 3 206 209 2-s2.0-0025324822 10.1111/j.1365-2230.1990.tb02073.x
108. Hill S., Edwards C., A comparison of the effects of bath additives on the barrier function of skin in normal volunteer subjects. The Journal of Dermatological Treatment 2002 13 1 15 18 2-s2.0-0036168377 10.1080/ 09546630252775199
109. Bettzuege-Pfaff B. I., Melzer A., Treating dry skin and pruritus with a bath oil containing soya oil and lauromacrogols. Current Medical Research and Opinion 2005 21 11 1735 1739 2-s2.0-27944468160 10.1185/030079905X62963
110. Ogunlesi T. A., Ogunfowora O. B., Ogundeyi M. M., Prevalence and risk factors for hypothermia on admission in Nigerian babies 72 h of age. Journal of Perinatal Medicine 2009 37 2 180 184 2-s2.0-59549088964 10.1515/JPM.2009.036
111. Iweze F. A., Taboos of childbearing and child-rearing in Bendel state of Nigeria. Journal of Nurse-Midwifery 1983 28 3 31 33 2-s2.0-48749145878
112. Lodén M., Buraczewska I., Edlund F., Irritation potential of bath and shower oils before and after use: a double-blind randomized study. The British Journal of Dermatology 2004 150 6 1142 1147 2-s2.0-3142699784 10.1111/j.0007-0963.2004.05923.x
113. Shams K., Grindlay D. J. C., Williams H. C., What's new in atopic eczema? An analysis of systematic reviews published in 2009-2010. Clinical and Experimental Dermatology 2011 36 6 573 578 2-s2.0-79960573678 10.1111/j.1365-2230.2011.04078.x
114. Tarr A., Iheanacho I., Should we use bath emollients for atopic eczema? British Medical Journal 2009 339 2-s2.0-77957156856 b4273
115. Field T., Schanberg S., Davalos M., Malphurs J., Massage with oil has more positive effects on normal infants. Pre- and Perinatal Psychology Journal 1996 11 2 75 80
116. Field T., Field T., Cullen C., Largie S., Diego M., Schanberg S., Kuhn C., Lavender bath oil reduces stress and crying and enhances sleep in very young infants. Early Human Development 2008 84 6 399 401 2-s2.0-43449135598 10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2007.10.008
117. Friedman Z., Shochat S. J., Maisels M. J., Marks K. H., Lamberth E. L. Jr., Correction of essential fatty acid deficiency in newborn infants by cutaneous application of sunflower seed oil. Pediatrics 1976 58 5 650 654 2-s2.0-0017146972
118. Maghraby G. M. M. El, Campbell M., Finnin B. C., Mechanisms of action of novel skin penetration enhancers: phospholipid versus skin lipid liposomes. International Journal of Pharmaceutics 2005 305 1-2 90 104 2-s2.0-27644441576 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2005.08.016
119. Darmstadt G. L., Mao-Qiang M., Chi E., Saha S. K., Ziboh V. A., Black R. E., Santosham M., Elias P. M., Impact of topical oils on the skin barrier: possible implications for neonatal health in developing countries. Acta Paediatrica 2002 91 5 546 554 2-s2.0-0036272599 10.1080/080352502753711678
120. Williams A. C., Barry B. W., Penetration enhancers. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 2004 56 5 603 618 2-s2.0-1542298898 10.1016/j.addr.2003.10.025
121. Kränke B., Komericki P., Aberer W., Olive oilcontact sensitizer or irritant? Contact Dermatitis 1997 36 1 5 10 2-s2.0-0031058247 10.1111/j.1600-0536.1997.tb00914.x
122. Isaksson M., Bruze M., Occupational allergic contact dermatitis from olive oil in a masseur. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 1999 41 2, part 2 312 315 2-s2.0-0032791188
123. Wong G. A. E., King C. M., Occupational allergic contact dermatitis from olive oil in pizza making. Contact Dermatitis 2004 50 2 102 103 2-s2.0-2442655092 10.1111/j.0105-1873.2004.0295d.x
124. Williams J. D., Tate B. J., Occupational allergic contact dermatitis from olive oil. Contact Dermatitis 2006 55 4 251 252 2-s2.0-33748457496 10.1111/j.1600-0536.2006.00916.x
125. Puhvel S. M., Reisner R. M., Sakamoto M., Analysis of lipid composition of isolated human sebaceous gland homogenates after incubation with cutaneous bacteria. Thin-layer chromatography. The Journal of Investigative Dermatology 1975 64 6 406 411 2-s2.0-0016515882
126. Patzelt A., Lademann J., Richter H., In vivo investigations on the penetration of various oils and their influence on the skinbarrier. Skin Research and Technology 2012 18 3 364 369 10.1111/j.1600-0846.2011.00578.x
127. DiNardo J. C., Is mineral oil comedogenic? Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology 2005 4 1 2 3 10.1111/j.1473-2165.2005.00150.x
128. Nash J. F., Gettings S. D., Diembeck W., Chudowski M., Kraus A. L., A toxicological review of topical exposure to white mineral oils. Food and Chemical Toxicology 1996 34 2 213 225 2-s2.0-0029979494 10.1016/0278-6915(95) 00106-9
129. Darmstadt G. L., Ahmed A. S. M. N. U., Saha S. K., Chowdhury M. A. K. A., Alam M. A., Khatun M., Black R. E., Santosham M., Infection control practices reduce nosocomial infection and mortality in preterm infants in Bangladesh. Journal of Perinatology 2005 25 5 331 335 2-s2.0-18444396907 10.1038/sj.jp.7211283
130. Ahmed A. S. M. N. U., Saha S. K., Chowdhury M. A., Law P. A., Black R. E., Santosham M., Darmstadt G. L., Acceptability of massage with skin barrier-enhancing emollients in young neonates in Bangladesh. Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition 2007 25 2 236 240 2-s2.0-35348969367
131. Edwards W. H., Conner J. M., Soll R. F., The effect of prophylactic ointment therapy on nosocomial sepsis rates and skin integrity in infants with birth weights of 501 to 1000 g. Pediatrics 2004 113 5 1195 1203 2-s2.0-2342469384 10.1542/peds.113.5.1195
132. Conner J. M., Soll R. F., Edwards W. H., Topical ointment for preventing infection in preterm infants. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2004 1 CD001150 2-s2.0-2942753966
133. Visscher M. O., Update on the use of topical agents in neonates. Newborn and Infant Nursing Reviews 2009 9 1 31 47 2-s2.0-59349089203 10.1053/j.nainr.2008.12.010
134. Schuchat A., Lizano C., Broome C. V., Swaminathan B., Kim C., Winn K., Outbreak of neonatal listeriosis associated with mineral oil. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 1991 10 3 183 189 2-s2.0-0025796731
135. Brannan D. K., Dille J. C., Type of closure prevents microbial contamination of cosmetics during consumer use. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 1990 56 5 1476 1479 2-s2.0-0025230793
136. Na'was T., Alkofahi A., Microbial contamination and preservative efficacy of topical creams. Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics 1994 19 1 41 46 2-s2.0-0028321795
137. Becks V. E., Lorenzoni N. M., Pseudomonas aeruginosa outbreak in a neonatal intensive care unit: a possible link to contaminated hand lotion. American Journal of Infection Control 1995 23 6 396 398 2-s2.0-0029620895 10.1016/0196-6553(95)90272-4
138. Campbell J. R., Zaccaria E., Baker C. J., Systemic candidiasis in extremely low birth weight infants receiving topical petrolatum ointment for skin care: a case-control study. Pediatrics 2000 105 5 1041 1045 2-s2.0-0034107658
139. LeFevre A., Shillcutt S. D., Saha S. K., Ahmed A. S. M. N. U., Ahmed S., Chowdhury M. A. K. A., Law P. A., Black R., Santosham M., Darmstadt G. L., Cost-effectiveness of skin-barrier-enhancing emollients among preterm infants in Bangladesh. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 2010 88 2 104 112 2-s2.0-75649119674 10.2471/BLT.08.058230
140. Bharathi M., Sundaram V., Kumar P., Skin barrier therapy and neonatal mortality in preterm infants. Pediatrics 2009 123 2 e355 e356 2-s2.0-61549083077 10.1542/peds.2008-2307
141. Brandon D. H., Coe K., Hudson-Barr D., Oliver T., Landerman L. R., Effectiveness of No-Sting skin protectant and Aquaphor on water loss and skin integrity in premature infants. Journal of Perinatology 2010 30 6 414 419 2-s2.0-77953022204 10.1038/jp.2009.174
142. Brenner M., Hearing V. J., The protective role of melanin against UV damage in human skin. Photochemistry and Photobiology 2008 84 3 539 549 2-s2.0-42549140099 10.1111/j.1751-1097.2007.00226.x
143. Mack M. C., Tierney N. K., Ruvolo E. Jr., Stamatas G. N., Martin K. M., Kollias N., Development of solar UVR-related pigmentation begins as early as the first summer of life. The Journal of Investigative Dermatology 2010 130 9 2335 2338 2-s2.0-77955712701 10.1038/jid.2010.104
144. Agache P., Blanc D., Barrand C., Laurent R., Sebum levels during the first year of life. The British Journal of Dermatology 1980 103 6 643 649 2-s2.0-0019158070
145. Vitellaro-Zuccarello L., Cappelletti S., Rossi V. Dal Pozzo, Sari-Gorla M., Stereological analysis of collagen and elastic fibers in the normal human dermis: variability with age, sex, and body region. The Anatomical Record 1994
146. Garcia Bartels N., Rösler S., Martus P., Stroux A., Lönnfors S., Reihauer A., Blume-Peytavi U., Effect of baby swimming and baby lotion on the skin barrier of infants aged 36 months. Journal der Deutschen Dermatologischen Gesellschaft 2011 9 12 1018 1025 2-s2.0-79958766764 10.1111/j.1610-0387.2011.07710.x
147. Lowe A. J., Tang M. L., Dharmage S. C., A phase i study of daily treatment with a ceramide-dominant triple lipid mixture commencing in neonates. BMC Dermatology 2012 12 1, article 3 10.1186/1471-5945-12-3
148. Darmstadt G. L., Saha S. K., Ahmed A. S. M. N. U., Choi Y., Chowdhury M. A. K. A., Islam M., Law P. A., Ahmed S., Effect of topical emollient treatment of preterm neonates in Bangladesh on invasion of pathogens into the bloodstream. Pediatric Research 2007 61 5, part 1 588 593 2-s2.0-34247511424 10.1203/pdr.0b013e3180459f75