Opening Pandora's box: The sovereign debt crisis and labour market regulation in Greece

Industrial Law Journal

Volumn 41, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 276-304

  Koukiadaki, Aristea ^a   Kretsos, Lefteris ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF GREENWICH   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84866431694     PISSN: 03059332     EISSN: 14643669     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/indlaw/dws031     Document Type: Article

References (133)

1. D. Hall, 'Greece: Cuts Watch November 2011' Cuts Watch Brief (Public Services International Research Unit, University of Greenwich, 2011), http://www.psiru.org/cutswatch (accessed 6 July 2012).
2. A. Kapsalis, Government Adopts Extraordinary Measures to Tackle Economic Crisis, http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/eiro/2010/03/articles/gr1003029i.htm (accessed 14 March 2012).
3. A. Koukiadaki and L. Kretsos, 'The Case of Greece', in M. C. Escande Varniol, S. Laulom and E. Mazuyer (eds), What Social Law in a Europe in Crisis? (Brussels: Larcier, 2012), at 189.
4. See also H. Voskeritsian and A. Kornelakis, 'Institutional Change in Greek Industrial Relations in an Era of Fiscal Crisis', Working Paper No 52 (London School of Economics and Political Science, Hellenic Observatory, 2011).
5. S. Deakin and F. Wilkinson, 'Marchés du travail, crise financière et réforme: projet d'agenda pour une politique du travail' (2011) 108 L'homme et la société 25.
6. Y. Kouzis, 'The Industrial Relations Landscape in Greece after the Memorandum Agreement' (in Greek) (2011) 181 Enimerosi 6, at 10.
7. The ongoing project of neoliberal social engineering has provoked, since 2010, massive anti-austerity mobilisations of working people. Further, it has resulted in the dramatic rise of SYRIZA (the anti-austerity radical left party) in the two general elections of 2012.
8. K. Featherstone and D. Papadimitriou, 'The Limits of Europeanisation: Reform Capacity and Policy Conflict in Greece', in K. Featherstone (ed), Palgrave Studies in European Union Politics (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2009), at 39.
9. See also S. Economides and V. Monastiriotis (eds), The Return of Street Politics? Essays on the December Riots in Greece (London: Hellenic Observatory, London School of Economics and Political Science, 2009).
10. K. Dräger, Sado-Monetarism Rules OK?! EU Economic Governance and Its Consequences, http://www.euromemo.eu/annual_workshops/2011_vienna/papers_v/index.html (accessed 12 February 2012).
11. Nevertheless such reforms have gradually been implemented in Greece and in other Eurozone member states since 2010.
12. For a full account of changes in the labour law and industrial relations system that took place since 2010, see Koukiadaki and Kretsos, 'The Case of Greece' above n.2.
13. See also L. Kretsos, 'Grassroots Unionism in the Context of Economic Crisis in Greece' (2011) 52 Labor History 265.
14. A. Dedousopoulos, 'The State of the Greek Labour Market under Crisis' (in Greek) (Research Report, Hay Group, OMAS, EEDE, May 2012).
15. Y. Kouzis, 'The Neoliberal Restructuring of Labour and the Crisis Alibi' (in Greek), in K. Vergopoulos (ed), The Map of the Crisis, the End of the Illusion (Athens: Topos, 2010), at 82.
16. C. Ioannou, 'Employment Regulation and Labour Relations in Greece', http://www2.lse.ac.uk/europeanInstitute/research/hellenicObservatory/ (accessed 13 February 2012).
17. W. Öchel and A. Rohwer, 'Reduction of Employment Protection in Europe: A Comparative Fuzzy-Set Analysis', http://www.cesifo-group.de/portal/pls/portal/docs/1/1186004.PDF (accessed 14 April 2012).
18. See also L. Kretsos, 'Union Responses to the Rise of Precarious Employment in Greece' (2011) 42 Industrial Relations Journal 453.
19. S. Kouvelakis, 'The Greek Cauldron' (2011) 72 New Left Review 17.
20. An account of the operation of the economic modernisation dogma after 1996 may be found in N. Sevastakis, Common Country: Aspects of the Public Space and the Antinomies of Values in Contemporary Greece (in Greek) (Athens: Savalas, 2004).
21. See also E. Tsakalotos, The Values and Value of the Left: An Anti-modernization Tract on the Economy and Society (in Greek) (Athens: Kritiki, 2005).
22. E. Tsakalotos, 'Contesting Greek Exceptionalism: The Political Economy of the Current Crisis', http://www.e-history.eu/files/uploads/Paper_-_2011.05.16.pdf (accessed 27 March 2012).
23. N. Diamantouros, Political Dualism and Political Change in Post-Authoritarian Greece (in Greek) (Athens: Alexandreia Press, 2000).
24. See also Sevastakis, Common Country, n.12 above.
25. A. La Spina and G. Sciortino, 'Common Agenda, Southern Rules: European Integration and Environmental Change in the Mediterranean States', in D. Liefferink, P. Lowe and A. Moll (eds), European Integration and Environmental Policy (London: Belhaven Press, 1993), 219-22.
26. 'The Greek Cauldron', n.12 above, at 21.
27. L. Kretsos, 'The Effects of the Crisis on the Greek Construction Industry: From the Olympus Mountain to the Kaida Cliff' (2010) 3 Construction Labour Research News 7.
28. See also Tsakalotos, 'Contesting Greek Exceptionalism', n.13 above.
29. See generally, Kouzis, 'Neoliberal Restructuring', n.10 above.
30. Tsakalotos, 'Contesting Greek Exceptionalism', n.13 above.
31. On the significance of this, see generally Kouzis, 'Neoliberal Restructuring', n.10 above.
32. Kouzis, 'Neoliberal Restructuring', n.10 above.
33. INE/GSEE-ADEDY, INE Annual Outlook for the Greek Economy and Employment, Annual Outlook 12 (Athens: INE/GSEE-ADEDY, 2010), at 40.
34. European Commission, The Economic Adjustment Programme for Greece, Fourth Review - Spring 2011, Occasional Papers 32 (Brussels: Commission, 2011), at 39-40.
35. M. Karamessini, 'Still a Distinctive Southern European Employment Model?' (2008) 39 Industrial Relations Journal 510.
36. Koukiadaki and Kretsos, 'The Case of Greece', above n.2.
37. P. Mason, Why It's Kicking Off Everywhere: The New Global Revolutions (London: Verso, 2012).
38. J. Milios and D. Sotiropoulos, 'Crisis of Greece or Crisis of the Euro? A View from the European Periphery' (2010) 12 Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies 223.
39. Under the Loan Facility Agreement dated 8 May 2010 and the IMF Standby Arrangement, Greece's lenders undertook to grant specific funds to the country for a period of three years at a 5% interest rate. This was generally regarded as a high level for a bailout loan.
40. It has to be stressed here that the loan was to be disbursed in installments, on condition that the Greek government met a number of commitments to service the loan according to a number of agreed conditions and to implement the time-specific measures set out in the Memoranda. It was also stated that the measures to be undertaken by the Greek government would take effect within the framework of the excessive deficit procedure of Art 126(9) TFEU.
41. Government Gazette (FEK) 65 A/6-5-2010.
42. Art 1 of Act 3845/2010 authorised the Minister of Finance to represent the Greek state and in that capacity to sign any memorandum of understanding, agreement or loan agreement (bilateral or multilateral) in order to implement the programme of the 'support mechanism'. Art 1(4) of Act 3845/2010 provided that any agreements so concluded should be introduced before the Greek Parliament for ratification, but according to Art 1(9) of Act 3847/2010 (FEK 67 A/11-5-2010), which was adopted later, these agreements were to be introduced to the Parliament only for 'discussion' and 'information'. It should be added here that the conclusion of the loan agreement preceded the amendment of Art 1(4) of Act 3845/2010 concerning the need for the ratification of any agreements by the Greek Parliament.
43. As we shall see below, Act 3845/2010 served as the legal basis for a number of significant changes in labour law.
44. Ministry of Finance, Memorandum of Economic and Financial Policies (Ministry of Finance, 2010) at 12.
45. C. Lapavitsas, A. Kaltenbrunner, D. Lindo, J. Michell, J. P. Painceira, E. Pires, J. Powell, A. Stenfors, N. Teles, 'Eurozone Crisis: Beggar Thyself and Their Neighbour', Research on Money and Finance Occasional Report, March 2010, at 364.
46. Y. Ghellab and P. Papadakis, 'The Politics of Economic Adjustment in Europe: State Unilateralism or Social Dialogue?' in International Labour Organisation (ILO) (ed), The Global Crisis: Causes, Responses and Challenges (Geneva: International Labour Office, 2011).
47. ILO, Report on the High Level Mission to Greece (Geneva: International Labour Office, 2011) at 27 33T.
48. Colling, 'What Space for Unions on the Floor of Rights? Trade Unions and the Enforcement of Statutory Individual Employment Rights' (2006) 35 ILJ 140.
49. The lack of ratification is coupled with a further significant constraint in terms of the substantive part of the loan agreement. The agreement stipulates that English law is applicable in the case of disputes pertaining to private law issues arising from the agreement. In addition, the CJEU has sole jurisdiction over the resolution of international and constitutional issues concerning the agreement.
50. For an analysis of the loan agreement, see E. Marias, 'The Loan Agreement between Greece and the Eurozone Member States under the Light of the EU Institutions and EU Law' (in Greek) (2010) 58 Nomiko Vima 2204, at 2010.
51. Council of State, 668/2012. Contrast the decision of the Greek Council of State with the decision of the Latvian Constitutional Court, which found that the government's decision to reduce pensions by 70% for working retirees and by 10% for other pensioners violated the individual right to social security and the principle of the rule of law. The pension cuts has been said to form a vital part of the Latvian government's programme of austerity measures, under the terms of the IMF- and EU-led 7.5 billion loan agreement. See the analysis of the Latvian case by S. Dahan, 'The EU/IMF Financial Stabilisation Process in Latvia and Its Implications for Labour Law and Social Policy' (2012) 41 ILJ (in this issue).
52. ILO, Report of the Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations: General Report and Observations concerning Particular countries, Report III (Part 1A), International Labour Conference, 100th Session, Geneva, 2011.
53. The tripartite global International Labour Conference Standards Committee extended the mission's mandate to include what were considered to be crucial discussions with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the European Union (EU), in order to obtain a full view of the measures being proposed and their possible impact on voluntary obligations undertaken within the framework of the country's membership in the ILO.
54. General Federation of Employees of the National Electric Power Corporation (GENOP-DEI) and Confederation of Greek Civil Servants' Trade Unions (ADEDY) v Greece, Complaint no 65/2011 and General Federation of Employees of the National Electric Power Corporation (GENOP-DEI) and Confederation of Greek Civil Servants' Trade Unions (ADEDY) v Greece, Complaint no 66/2011.
55. The paper does not examine the extensive changes that took place in the public sector and social security law. For an analysis of these, see Koukiadaki and Kretsos, 'The Case of Greece', n.2 above.
56. Y. Ghellab and K. Papadakis, 'The Politics of Economic Adjustment in Europe: State Unilateralism or Social Dialogue?' in ILO (ed), The Global Crisis: Causes, Responses and Challenges (Geneva: ILO, 2011), at 87.
57. FEK 115 A/15-7-2010
58. N. K. Gavalas, 'The New Measures for the Employment Relations: A First Appraisal of the Announced Presidential Decree' (in Greek) (2010) 7 Epitheorisi Ergatikou Dikaiou 793, at 795.
59. Art 281 of the Civil Code (abuse of rights) has been the basis for the examination of dismissal by the courts.
60. Art 75(3).
61. On the labour law-productivity link, see S. Deakin and P. Sarkar, 'Assessing the Long-Run Economic Impact of Labour Law Systems: A Theoretical Reappraisal and Analysis of New Time Series Data' (2008) 39 Industrial Relations Journal 453.
62. Prior to the reform, collective dismissals were those affecting at least, over a period of a month, four employees in undertakings with 20-200 employees, and 2-3% of the workforce but not more than 30 employees over a period of one month in undertakings with over 200 employees.
63. FEK 212 A/17-12-2010
64. According to the Greek government, the introduction of a 12-month probationary period was reasonable 'in particular, if the current economic crisis and the instability in Greek enterprises' activity are taken into account' (Government's response (case document no 5) to collective complaint 66/2011 by GENOP-DEI and ADEDY to the European Committee of Social Rights, n 38 above at 10).
65. FEK 66 A/11.5.2010
66. Art 17(2) of the new Act 3899/2010 also abolished the increment of 7.5%, which was provided by Art 7 of Act 2874/2000, for part-time workers working less than four hours per day and paid on a minimum wage basis.
67. An 'association of persons' can be created in enterprises with less than 20 workers by 15% of workers and in enterprises with more than 20 workers by 25% of the workforce.
68. Art 42 of Act 3986/2011.
69. Under such apprenticeship contracts, the workers are excluded from the protective provisions of labour legislation on permissible working hours, the start and end of the working day taking into account course schedules, obligatory periods of rest, obligatory paid annual leave, time off for attending school, studying and sick leave (Arts 74(8) and (9) of Act 3863/2010).
70. ILO, Report on the High Level Mission to Greece, n.32 above, at 60.
71. Ministry of Finance, Revised Memorandum of Economic and Financial Policies, 22 November (Ministry of Finance, 2010).
72. FEK 152 A/1-7-2010.
73. In addition, it was provided that awards for the period 1 July 2011 to 31 December 2012 should limit any wage increases to those stipulated in the general national collective agreement, that is, a percentage increase equal to the average Eurozone inflation rate.
74. Art 7 of Act 1876/1990 and Art 680 of the Civil Code.
75. ILO, Report on the High Level Mission to Greece, n.32 above, at 26. But even this preference for a collective bargaining was later abandoned when the Greek government negotiated the conditions for the conclusion of a second loan agreement: see below.
76. A prohibition on the extension of collective agreements was also considered but as a result of an agreement reached between the employers' associations and the trade unions it was not finally introduced (A. Kazakos, 'The "Charity" of the Individual Contract' (in Greek), Kyriakatiki Eleutherotypia, 12 December 2010, http://www.enet.gr/?i=news.el.article&id=232458 (accessed 30 May 2012)). But such a prohibition was later introduced on a temporary basis: see our analysis, below.
77. The GSEE guidance stressed that although there is no provision in the Act concerning the prohibition of dismissals during the application of the agreement, a trade union should require the employer to ensure the maintenance of all jobs during the duration of the agreement (GSEE, Guidance on Collective Bargaining and Collective Labour Agreements: 10 Critical Issues (in Greek) (GSEE, 2011)).
78. G. Katrougalos, 'The Sub-Constitution of the Memorandum and the Other Way' (in Greek), http://www.constitutionalism.gr/html/ent/967/ent.1967.asp (accessed 30 May 2012).
79. See the government's response (case document no 5) to collective complaint 65/2011 by GENOP-DEI and ADEDY to the European Committee of Social Rights (n 38 above).
80. Kazakos, 'The "Charity" of the Individual Contract', n 60 above.
81. European Commission, The Economic Adjustment Programme for Greece, Fourth Review - Spring 2011, Occasional Papers 32 (European Commission, 2011), at 39-40.
82. The position of the Greek government is that 'the above amendments in the system of ranking of the binding effect of collective agreements do not violate the freedom of collective bargaining, since in any case only the legal representatives of workers at enterprise level have the right to conclude firm-level labour collective agreements' (Government's response (case document no 5) to the collective complaint by GENOP-DEI and ADEDY to the European Committee of Social Rights (n 38 above at 9).
83. ILO, Report on the High Level Mission to Greece, n.32 above, at 59.
84. Art 16 of Act 1876/1990.
85. A. Kazakos, The Arbitration of Collective Interest Differences According to Act 1876/1990 (in Greek) (Athens: Sakkoulas, 1998).
86. According to case law, the unilateral right of trade unions is consistent with the provisions of the Greek Constitution and of relevant ILO Conventions, with the proviso that resort to arbitration only takes place following the exhaustion of all efforts for a conciliatory resolution of the dispute (Supreme Court decision 25/2004 DEN 2004, 1399; Council of State 3204/1998 DEN 1999, 13; Council of State 4555/1996 DEN 1997, 441).
87. Arts 73 and 74.
88. Art 16.
89. Until 2012, the awards cannot exceed the average EU inflation rate (Art 51 of Act 3871/2010).
90. European Commission, The Economic Adjustment Programme for Greece, Fifth Review - October 2011, Occasional Papers 87/2011 (European Commission, 2011).
91. Paul Thomsen (IMF) stated in an interview: 'The minimum wage [in Greece] is dramatically higher than in other countries similar to Greece and approximates the wage levels of developed countries. In other words, it is much higher than that justified by the productivity of the Greek economy. ('The Minimum Wage Has to be Reduced', Kathimerini, 1 February 2012).
92. However, according to recent OECD data, unit labour costs in Greece have been reduced by 2.8% (the biggest reduction in the Eurozone countries) (OECD, OECD System of Unit Labour Cost and Related Indicators, Paris, June 2012, http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/23/36/50641522.pdf, last assessed 10 June 2012).
93. The specific reasons advanced included the following: (i) an imposed cut on private sector wages would probably have implied an even larger disruption in economic activity in 2010-11. (ii) the oligopolistic nature of a number of sectors meant that the effect of any wage reductions would be absorbed by price increases; (iii) Greece's export structure is concentrated in exports of services, demand for which is not price elastic (iv) a cut in private wages would have contributed to a more inequitable distribution of income across society.
94. see European Economy, The Economic Adjustment Programme for Greece, October 2011, Occasional Papers 61/2010, June 2010 (Brussels, 2010), 21.
95. The National Federation of Greek Commerce suggested that a reduction of social insurance costs by 10% in conjunction with the introduction of three-year pay freeze in the private sector and the effective implementation of enterprise-level collective agreements would eliminate the need to reduce further the wages and abolish the thirteenth and fourteenth salary ('ESEE suggests three-year freeze of wages and reduction of social insurance costs' (in Greek) To Vima, 11 Jan 2012, http://www.tovima.gr/finance/article/?aid=438275, accessed 10 July 2012).
96. The Athens Chamber of Commerce and Industry suggested the creation of special economic zones (SEZ) with a more favourable tax status for investors, a simpler licensing process, and reduced court jurisdiction. Following a proposal by Germany and France, the creation of SEZs has been viewed in a positive light by the European Commission (D. Manifava, Special Economic Zones in the Cards, 2 Dec 2011, Kathimerini, http://www.ekathimerini.com/4dcgi/_w_articles_wsite2_1_02/12/2011_417284, accessed 10 July 2012).
97. However, concerns have been expressed by Greek employers associations that under such proposals, enterprises located in SEZs will have the right to derogate from a number of labour standards (M. Vasileiou, Employers ask for a three-year wage freeze (in Greek) Ta Nea, 10 Jan 2012, http://www.tanea.gr/ellada/article/?aid=4686283, accessed 10 July 2012).
98. Ministry of Finance, Memorandum of Understanding on Specific Economic Policy Conditionality (Ministry of Finance, 2012), at 25.
99. See L. Rychly, 'Social Dialogue in Times of Crisis: Finding Better Solutions', Industrial and Employment Relations Department (DIALOGUE), Working Paper No 1 (ILO, 2009).
100. J. Freyssinet, 'Tripartite Response to the Economic Crisis in the Principal Western European Countries', Industrial and Employment Relations Department (DIALOGUE), Working Paper No 12 (ILO, 2010).
101. See also K. Papadakis, 'Restructuring Enterprises through Social Dialogue: Socially Responsible Practices in Times of Crisis', Industrial and Employment Relations Department (DIALOGUE), Working Paper No 19 (ILO, 2010).
102. Ghallab and Papadakis, 'The Politics of Economic Adjustment in Europe', above n.40, at 90.
103. FEK 28 A/14.2.2012. Act 4046/2012 included as Annexes the MEFP, the Memorandum of Understanding on Specific Economic Policy s and the Technical Memorandum of Understanding.
104. See also Act 6 of 28 February 2012 of the Ministerial Council (FEK 38 A/28.2.2012) and Guidance by the Ministry of Labour and Social Security 4601/304 (2012).
105. GSEE has indicated its intention to challenge the measures on the basis that they are unconstitutional, contravene ILO Conventions and European social rights (GSEE, Guidance on the Contravention of the 'Memorandum of Economic and Financial Policies' and the 'Memorandum of Understanding on Specific Economic Policy Conditionality' to the Constitution and to the International and European Agreements and Conventions: Legal Analysis in Light of Court Applications by Employees and Their Trade Unions (in Greek) (GSEE, 2012)).
106. Advisory Committee to the Greek Parliament on Law-making, Report on the Legislative Proposal of the Approval of the Plans of the Financial Facility Agreements between the European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF), the Hellenic Republic and the Bank of Greece, of the Plan of the Memorandum of Understanding between the Hellenic Republic, the European Commission and the Bank of Greece and other Urgent Provisions for the Reduction of Public Debt and the Rescue of the Greek Economy (in Greek) (Greek Parliament, 2012), at 8.
107. Ministry of Finance, Memorandum of Economic and Financial Policies (Ministry of Finance, 2012), at 22. The ILO report (2011, n.32 above, at 19), which was published before the conclusion of the second loan agreement, stated with respect to the minimum wage levels for young people: 'Based on statistical information provided by the Hellenic Statistical Authority (EL.STAT) and EUROSTAT, the poverty level in Greece was at 6,000-7,000 per year. On this basis, it was considered that a young person could cover basic needs with a subminimum wage of 584 per month. This amount also corresponded to what was paid in terms of unemployment benefits.' Contrast this with the minimum wage level of 510.95 for young persons that has been established following the second loan agreement.
108. Act 6 of 28.2.2012 of the Ministerial Council. The lowest minimum wage is set at 586.
109. Act 6 of 28.2.2012 of the Ministerial Council.
110. On the basis of an amendment of Art 74(9) of Act 3863/2010.
111. Art 4 of Act 6 of 28.2.2012 of the Ministerial Council.
112. S. P. Gavroglou, The Cost of Labour in Greece Before and After the Memorandum (in Greek) (National Institute of Labour and Human Resources, 2012).
113. Advisory Committee to the Greek Parliament on Law-making, Report, n 83 above at 4-5.
114. G. Leventis, Collective Autonomy and State Interventionism in Labour Law (in Greek) (Athens: Sakkoulas, 1981), at 39.
115. Council of State, 2287/1987, No B 1987, 1096.
116. Art 2(1) of Act 6 of 28.2.2012 of the Ministerial Council.
117. Art 2(3) of Act 6 of 28.2.2012 of the Ministerial Council. The previous regime (Art 9 of Act 1876/1990) stipulated a period of six months and was applicable to newly recruited employees during the six-month period. Concerning the position of newly recruited employees, the guidance by the Ministry of Labour and Social Security (no 4601/304) states that the terms of the collective agreement are only applicable if the conditions of Art 8(2) of Act 1876/1990 are satisfied.
118. Ministry of Finance Memorandum of Economic and Financial Policies, n 84 above at 22.
119. GSEE Guidance, n 82 above at 7-8.
120. Art 3(1) of Act 6 of 28.2.2012 of the Ministerial Council.
121. This is possibly partly due to concerns expressed regarding certain ambiguities regarding Act 3899/2010 (see OMED submission to the ILO Report (ILO Report on the High Level Mission to Greece, at 51).
122. Art 3(3) of Act 6 of 28.2.2012 of the Ministerial Council.
123. ILO Report on the High Level Mission to Greece, at 37.
124. GSEE Guidance, n 82 above, at 10.
125. S. Lampousaki, Sharp Increase in Flexible Forms of Labour, http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/ewco/2011/05/GR1105029I.htm (accessed 18 February 2012).
126. See http://www.tovima.gr/finance/article/?aid=462019 (accessed 10 June 2012).
127. See http://tvxs.gr/news/ellada/sepe-kakos-ergodotis-sxedon-1-stoys-3 (accessed 15 June 2012).
128. A. Dedousopoulos n 9 above.
129. IME-GSEVEE, 'Economic Climate Survey July 2011', http://imegsevee.gr/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=333%3A24-08-2011-2011-0-49-995-&catid=52%3Adeltia-tupou-ime-gsevee&Itemid=93 (accessed 23 June 2012).
130. See http://www.imerisia.gr/article.asp?catid=26519&subid=2&pubid=112778841 (accessed 18 June 2012).
131. A. Kentikelenis, M. Karanikolos, I. Papanicolas et al., 'Economic Crisis, Austerity and the Greek Public Health System' (2011) European Journal of Public Health 4.
132. Symptoms of a contagion of labour market deregulation are already evident in other peripheral EU Member States (these are Ireland, Portugal, Spain and Italy).
133. On the significance of these trends see Escande Varniol, Laulom and Mazuyer (eds), What Social Law in a Europe in Crisis?, n.2 above.