Hypertension in postmenopausal women

Current Hypertension Reports

Volumn 14, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 254-260

  Lima, Roberta ^a   Wofford, Marion ^a   Reckelhoff, Jane F ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MISSISSIPPI SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Aging; Androgens; Blood pressure; Cardiovascular disease; Depression; Endothelin; Estrogen; Hormone replacement therapy; Hypertension; Menopause; Obesity. Metabolic syndrome; Renin angiotensin system; Sympathetic nervous system; Women

Indexed keywords

ALDOSTERONE; ALGESTONE; ALPHA TOCOPHEROL; ANDROGEN; ANGIOTENSIN; ANGIOTENSIN 1 RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENT; ASCORBIC ACID; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; CONJUGATED ESTROGEN; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; ENDOTHELIN; ESTRADIOL; ESTROGEN; MEDROXYPROGESTERONE; RENIN;

ADRENERGIC ACTIVITY; ADRENERGIC STIMULATION; ADRENERGIC SYSTEM; AGING; ANXIETY; ARTICLE; BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT; BLOOD PRESSURE REGULATION; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CAUSE OF DEATH; DEPRESSION; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DRUG MECHANISM; ENDOTHELIAL DYSFUNCTION; HORMONE SUBSTITUTION; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; MENOPAUSE; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; NONHUMAN; OBESITY; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PLASMA RENIN ACTIVITY; POSTMENOPAUSE; PREVALENCE; RENIN ANGIOTENSIN ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM; VASCULAR ENDOTHELIUM; VASOCONSTRICTION;

AGING; ANDROGENS; ANXIETY; BLOOD PRESSURE; DEPRESSION; ESTROGENS; FEMALE; HUMANS; HYPERTENSION; OBESITY; POSTMENOPAUSE; RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN SYSTEM;

EID: 84865692442     PISSN: 15226417     EISSN: 15343111     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s11906-012-0260-0     Document Type: Article

References (96)

1. Ong KL, Tso AWK, Lam KS, Cheung BM. Gender differences in BP control and cardiovascular risk factors in Americans with diagnosed hypertension. Hypertension. 2008;51:1142-8. (Pubitemid 351398962)
2. Wiinberg N, Høegholm A, Christensen HR, Bang LE, Mikkelsen KL, Nielsen PE, et al. 24-h ambulatory BP in 352 normal Danish subjects, related to age and gender. Am J Hypertension. 1995;8:978-86.
3. Burt VL, Whelton P, Roccella EJ, Brown C, Cutler JA, Higgins M, et al. Prevalence of hypertension in the US adult population. results from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1991. Hypertension. 1995;25:305-13.
4. National Center for Health and Statistics Health, United States, 2010, with special feature on death and dying. Hyattsville, MD, Data Tables, pg 67, 2011. This publication contains the most recent national statistics and data on cardiovascular disease and obesity and thus is an excellent resource.
5. Kearney PM, Whelton M, Reynolds K, Muntner P, Whelton PK, He J. Global burden of hypertension; analysis of worldwide data. Lancet. 2005;365:217-23. (Pubitemid 40138015)
6. Taddei S. BP through aging and menopause. Climacteric. 2009;12 Suppl 1:36-40.
7. Pérez-López FR, Chedraui P, Gilbert JJ, Pérez-Roncero G. Cardiovascular risk in menopausal women and prevalent related co-morbid conditions: facing the post-Women's Health Initiative era. Fertil Steril. 2009;92:1171-86.
8. Sjoberg L, Kaaja R, Tuomilehto J. Epidemiology of postmenopausal hypertension. Int J Clin Pract Suppl. 2004;139:4-12. (Pubitemid 38529516)
9. Kim JK, Alley D, Seeman T, Karlamangla A, Crimmins E. Recent changes in cardiovascular risk factors among women and men. J Women's Health (Larchmont). 2006;15:734-46. (Pubitemid 44349851)
10. Routledge FS, McFetridge-Durdle JA, Dean CR. Stress, menopausal status and nocturnal BP dipping patterns among hypertensive women. Can J Cardiol. 2009;25:e157-63.
11. Stolarz K, Staessen JA, O'Brien ET. Night-time BP: dipping into the future? J Hypertension. 2002;21:2131-3.
12. Verdecchia P, Porcellati C, Schillaci G, Borgioni C, Ciucci A, Battistelli M, et al. An independent predictor of prognosis in essential hypertension. Hypertension. 1994;24:793-801. (Pubitemid 24363980)
13. Ben-Dov IZ, Kark JD, Ben-Ishay D, Mekler J, Ben-Arie L, Bursztyn M. Predictors of all-cause mortality in clinical ambulatory monitoring. Unique aspects of BP during sleep. Hypertension. 2007;49:235-1241.
14. Schunkert H, Danser AH, Hense HW, Derkx FH, Kurzinger S, Riegger GA. Effects of estrogen replacement therapy on the reninangiotensin systemin postmenopausal women. Circ. 1997;95:39-45. (Pubitemid 27029940)
15. Fernandez-Vega F, Abellan J, Vegazo O, De Vinuesa SG, Rodriguez JC, Maceira B, et al. Angiotensin II type 1 receptor blockade to control BP in postmenopausal women: influence of hormone replacement therapy. Kidney Int 2002, Suppl: S36-41. (Pubitemid 35356994)
16. Mansego ML, Redon J, Marin R, González-Albert V, Martin- Escudero JC, Fabia MJ, et al. Renin polymorphisms and haplotypes are associated with BP levels and hypertension risk in postmenopausal women. J Hypertension. 2008;26:230-7.
17. Yanes LL, Romero DG, Iliescu R, Zhang H, Davis D, Reckelhoff JF. Postmenopausal hypertension: role of the renin-angiotensin system. Hypertension. 2010;56(3):359-63.
18. Alexander BT, Cockrell KL, Rinewalt AN, Herrington JN, Granger JP. Enhanced renal expression of preproendothelin mRNA during chronic angiotensin II hypertension. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2001;280:R1388-92.
19. Wilkins Jr FC, Alberola A, Mizelle HL, Opgenorth TJ, Granger JP. Systemic hemodynamics and renal function during long-term pathophysiological increases in circulating endothelin. Am J Physiol. 1995;268:R375-81.
20. Mortensen LH, Pawloski CM, Kanagy NL, Fink GD. Chronic hypertension produced by infusion of endothelin in rats. Hypertension. 1990;15:729-33. (Pubitemid 20189449)
21. Komatsumoto S, Nara M. Changes in the level of endothelin-1 with aging. Nippon Ronen Igakkai Zasshi. 1995;32:664-9. (Pubitemid 26012551)
22. Ballew JR, Fink GD. Role of ET(A) receptors in experimental Ang II-induced hypertension in rats. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2001;281:R150-4.
23. Ballew JR, Fink GD. Role of endothelin ETB receptor activation in angiotensin II-induced hypertension: effects of salt intake. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2001;281:H2218-25.
24. Yanes LL, Romero DG, Cucchiarelli VE, Fortepiani LA, Gomez- Sanchez CE, Santacruz F, et al. Role of endothelin in mediating postmenopausal hypertension in a rat model. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2005;288:R229-33. (Pubitemid 40028318)
25. Sasser JM, Pollock JS, Pollock DM. Renal endothelin in chronic angiotensin II hypertension. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2002;283:R243-8. (Pubitemid 34863930)
26. de Kraker AT, Kenemans P, Smolders RG, Kroeks MV, van der Mooren MJ. Short-term effects of continuous combined oestrogenprogestogen therapy on several cardiovascular risk markers in healthy postmenopausal women; a randomized control trial. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2009;142:139-44.
27. Polderman KH, Stehouwer CD, van Kamp GJ, Dekker GA, Verheugt FW, Gooren LJ. Influence of sex hormones on plasma endothelin levels. Ann Intern Med. 1993;118:429-32. (Pubitemid 23081052)
28. van Kesteren PJ, Kooistra T, Lansink M, van Kamp JG, Asscheman H, Gooren LJ, et al. The effects of sex steroids on plasma levels of marker proteins of endothelial cell functioning. Thromb Haemost. 1998;79:1029-33. (Pubitemid 28224745)
29. Chen Y-F, Naftilan AJ, Oparil S. Androgen-dependent angiotensinogen and renin messenger RNA expression in hypertensive rats. Hypertension. 1992;19:456-63.
30. Ellison KE, Ingelfinger JR, Pivor M, Dzau VJ. Androgen regulation of rat renal angiotensinogen messenger RNA expression. J Clin Invest. 1989;83:1941-5. (Pubitemid 19148864)
31. Romero JC, Reckelhoff JF. Role of angiotensin and oxidative stress in essential hypertension. Hypertension. 1999;34:943-9. (Pubitemid 29501328)
32. Reckelhoff JF, Romero JC. Role of oxidative stress in angiotensininduced hypertension. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2003;284:R893-912. (Pubitemid 36406847)
33. Estaban Castelao J, Gago-Dominguez M. Risk factors for cardiovascular disease in women: relationship to lipid peroxidation and oxidative stress. Med Hypotheses. 2008;71:39-44. (Pubitemid 351707592)
34. Sartori-Valinotti JC, Iliescu R, Fortepiani LA, Yanes LL, Reckelhoff JF. Sex differences in oxidative stress and the impact on blood pressure control and cardiovascular disease. Clin Exp Pharm Physiol. 2007;34:938-45. (Pubitemid 47083963)
35. Pechanova O, Simko F. Chronic antioxidant therapy fails to ameliorate hypertension: potential mechanisms behind. J Hypertension Suppl. 2009;27:S32-6.
36. McQueen MJ, Lonn E, Gerstein HC, Bosch J, Yusuf S. The HOPE (Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation) study and its consequences. Scand J Clin Lab Invest Suppl. 2005;240:143-56.
37. Yanes L, Romero D, Iliescu R, Cucchiarelli VE, Fortepiani LA, Santacruz F, et al. Systemic arterial pressure response to two weeks of Tempol therapy in SHR: involvement of NO, the RAS, and oxidative stress. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2005;288:R229-33.
38. Ford ES, Li C, Zhao G, Tsai J. Trends in obesity and abdominal obesity among adults in the United States from 1999 to 2008. Int J Obes (Lond). 2011;35:736-43.
39. Flegal KM, Carroll MD, Ogden CL, Curtin LR. Prevalence and trends in obesity among US adults, 1999-2008. JAMA. 2010;303:235-41.
40. Lobo RA. Metabolic syndrome after menopause and the role of hormones. Maturitas. 2008;60:10-8.
41. Ozbey N, Sencer E,Molvalillar S, Orhan Y. Body fat distribution and cardiovascular disease risk factors in pre- and post-menopausal obese women with similar BMI. Endocrinol J. 2002;49:503-9. (Pubitemid 34988241)
42. Wildman RP, McGinn AP, Lin J, Wang D, Muntner P, Cohen HW, et al. Cardiovascular disease risk of abdominal obesity vs metabolic abnormalities. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2011;19:853-60.
43. Rossi R, Nuzzo A, Origliani G, Modena MG. Metabolic syndrome affects cardiovascular risk profile and response to treatment in hypertensive postmenopausal women. Hypertension. 2008;52:865-72.
44. de Belin de Chanteme;le EJ, Mintz JD, Rainey WE, Stepp DW. Impact of leptin-mediated sympatho-activation on cardiovascular function in obese mice. Hypertension. 2011;58:271-9.
45. Hall JE, da Silva AA, do Carmo JM, Dubinion J, Hamza S, Munusamy S, et al. Obesity-induced hypertension: role of sympathetic nervous system, leptin and melanocortins. J Biol Chem. 2010;85:17271-6. This review describes the roles played by leptin and the MC4 receptor in mediating increased sympathetic activity in obesity.
46. Esler MD, Elkelis N, Lambert E, Straznicky N. Neural mechanisms and management of obesity-related hypertension. Curr Cardiol Rep. 2008;10:456-63.
47. Kassab S, Kato T, Wilkins FC, Chen R, Hall JE, Granger JP. Renal denervation attenuates sodium retention and hypertension associated with obesity. Hypertension. 1995;25:893-7.
48. Haynes WG, Morgan DA, Djalali A, Sivitz WI, Mark AL. Interactions between the melanocortin system and leptin in control of sympathetic nerve traffic. Hypertension. 1999;33:542-7. (Pubitemid 29065717)
49. Shek EW, Brands MW, Hall JE. Chronic leptin infusion increases arterial pressure. Hypertension. 1998;31:409-14.
50. Hall JE, Hildebrandt DA, Kuo J. Obesity hypertension: role of leptin and sympathetic nervous system. Am J Hypertens. 2001;14:103S-15S. (Pubitemid 32506704)
51. Hogarth AJ, Burns J, Mckintosh AF, Mary DA. Sympathetic nerve hyperactivity of essential hypertension is lower in postmenopausal women than men. J Hum Hypertension. 2008;22:544-9.
52. Czarnecka D, Posnik-Urbanska A, Kawecka-Jaszcz K, Kolasinska- KlochW,WojciechowskaW, Fedak D. Indices of autonomic nervous system activity in women with mild hypertension in the perimenopausal period. Kardiol Pol. 2009;67:243-51.
53. Olszanecka A, Posnik-Urbanska A, Kawecka-Jaszcz K, Czarnecka D, Fedak D. Adipocytokines and BP, lipids and glucose metabolism in hypertensive perimenopausal women. Kardiolo Pol. 2010;68:753-60.
54. Pelzer T, de Jager T, Muck J, StimpelM, Neyses L. Oestrogen action on the myocardium in vivo: specific and permissive for angiotensinconverting enzyme inhibition. J Hypertens. 2002;20:1001-6. (Pubitemid 34913682)
55. Affinito P, Palomba S, Bonifacio M, Fontana D, Izzo R, Trimarco B, et al. Effects of hormone replacement therapy in postmenopausal hypertensive patients. Maturitas. 2001;40:75-83. (Pubitemid 33042467)
56. Dubey RK, Oparil S, Imthurm B, Jackson EK. Sex hormones and hypertension. Cardiovasc Res. 2002;53:688-708. (Pubitemid 34175262)
57. Nickenig G, Bäumer AT, Grohe; C, Kahlert S, Strehlow K, Rosenkranz S, et al. Estrogen modulates AT1 receptor gene expression in vitro and in vivo. Circ. 1998;97:2197-201. (Pubitemid 28265380)
58. Langrish JP, Mills NL, Bath LE, Warner P, Webb DJ, Kelnar CJ, et al. Cardiovascular effects of physiological and standard sex steroid replacement regimens in premature ovarian failure. Hypertension. 2009;53:805-11. This publication shows that women 18 to 41 years of age who had premature ovarian failure and were treated with HRT did not have the cardiovascular side effects that women in the WHI cohort experienced. These data support the notion that changes in response to estrogens occur with aging.
59. Burry KA. Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women. Principal results from the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. CurrWomen's Health Rep. 2002;2:331-2.
60. Herrington DM. The HERS trial results: paradigms lost? Heart and Estrogen/progestin Replacement Study. Ann Int Med. 1999;131: 463-6.
61. Grady D, Herrington D, Bittner V, Blumenthal R, Davidson M, Hlatky M, et al. Cardiovascular disease outcomes during 6.8 years of hormone therapy: Heart and Estrogen/progestin Replacement Study follow-up (HERS II). JAMA. 2002;288:49-57. (Pubitemid 34705518)
62. Cacciatore B, Paakkari I, Hasselblatt R, Nieminen MS, Toivonen J, Tikkanen MI, et al. Randomized comparison between orally and transdermally administered hormone replacement therapy regimens of long-term effects on 24-hr ambulatory BP in postmenopausal women. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2001;184:904-9. (Pubitemid 32368108)
63. Manhem K, Ahlm H, Milson I, Svensson A. Transdermal oestrogen reduces daytime BP in hypertensive women. J Hum Hypertens. 1998;12:323-7. (Pubitemid 28274363)
64. Seely EW, Walsh BW, Gerhard MD, Williams GH. Estradiol with or without progesterone and ambulatory BP in postmenopausal women. Hypertension. 1999;33:1190-4. (Pubitemid 29230972)
65. Kaya C, Cengiz SD, Cengiz B, Akgun G. Long-term effects of low dose 17beta-estradiol plus dydrogesterone on 24-hr ambulatory BP in healthy postmenopausal women: a 1 year, randomized, prospective study. Gynecol Endocrinol. 2007;23 Suppl 1:62-7. (Pubitemid 47616142)
66. Mortensen KH, Hansen KW, ErlandsenM, Christiansen JS, Gravholt CH. Ambulatory arterial stiffness index in Turner syndrome: the impact of sex hormone therapy. Horm Res. 2009;72:184-9.
67. de Carvalho MN, Nobre F, Mendes MC, Dos Reis RM, Ferriani RA, Silva de Sá MF. Low-dose transdermal hormone therapy does not interfere with the BP of hypertensive menopausal women: a pilot study. Blood Press Monit. 2008;13:277-83.
68. Ichikawa A, Sumino H, Ogawa T, Ichikawa S, Nitta K. Effects of long term transdermal hormone replacement therapy on the renin- angiotensin-aldosterone system, plasma bradykinin levels and BP in normotensive postmenopausal women. Geriatr Gerontol Int. 2008;8:259-64.
69. Prelevic GM, Kwong P, Byrne DJ, Jagroop IA, Ginsburg J, Mikhailidis DP. A cross-sectional study of the effect of hormone replacement therapy on cardiovascular disease risk profile in healthy postmenopausal women. Fertil Steril. 2002;77:945-51. (Pubitemid 34497161)
70. Harman SM, Vittinghoff E, Brinton EA, Budoff MJ, Cedars MI, Lobo RA, et al. Timing and duration of menopausal hormone treatment may affect cardiovascular outcomes. Am J Med. 2011;124:199-205.
71. Taddei S, Virdis A, Ghiadooni L, Mattei P, Sudano I, Bernini G, et al. Menopause is associated with endothelial dysfunction in women. Hypertension. 1996;28:576-82. (Pubitemid 26327952)
72. Rossi R, Nuzzo A, Origliani G, Modena MG. Prognostic role of flow-mediated dilation and cardiac risk factors in post-menopausal women. J Am Coll Card. 2008;51:997-1002. (Pubitemid 351318128)
73. Kalantaridou SN, Naka KK, Papanikolaou E, Kazakos N, Kravariti M, Calis KA, et al. Impaired endothelial function in young women with premature ovarian failure: normalization with hormone therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89:3907-13. (Pubitemid 39071493)
74. Kelemen M, Vaidya D, Waters DD, Howard BV, Cobb F, Younes N, et al. Hormone therapy and antioxidant vitamins do not improve endothelial vasodilator function in postmenopausal women with established coronary artery disease: a substudy of the Women's Angiographic Vitamin and Estrogen (WAVE) trial. Atherosclerosis. 2005;179:193-200. (Pubitemid 40249803)
75. Weiner CP, Lizasoain I, Baylis SA, Knowles RG, Charles IG, Moncada S. Induction of calcium-dependent nitric oxide synthases by sex hormones. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1994;91:5212-6. (Pubitemid 24177823)
76. Wyatt AW, Steinert JR, Mann GE. Modulation of the L-arginine/nitric oxide signalling pathway in vascular endothelial cells. Biochem Soc Symp. 2004;71:143-56. (Pubitemid 41185483)
77. Iñarrea P, Casanova A, Alava MA, Iturralde M, Cadenas E. Melatonin and steroid hormones activate intermembrane Cu, Znsuperoxide dismutase by means of mitochondrial cytochrome P450. Free Radic Biol Med. 2011;50:1575.
78. Gallagher PE, Li P, Lenhart JR, Chappell MC, Brosnihan KB. Estrogen regulation of angiotensin-converting enzyme mRNA. Hypertension. 1999;33:323-8. (Pubitemid 29065679)
79. Schunkert H, Danser AH, Hense HW, Derkx FH, Kürzinger S, Riegger GA. Effects of estrogen replacement therapy on the reninangiotensin system in post-menopausal women. Circ. 1997;95:39- 45. (Pubitemid 27029940)
80. Wassmann K, Ghiassi A,Wassmann S, Böhm M, Nickenig G. AT1 Receptor antagonism improves endothelial dysfunction in postmenopausal women. Maturitas. 2006;53(2):176-83. (Pubitemid 41820511)
81. Diamanti-Kandarakis E. Polycystic ovarian syndrome; pathophysiology, molecular aspects and clinical implications. Exp Rev Mol Med. 2008;10:1-21. (Pubitemid 351338213)
82. Chen M-J, Yang W-S, Yang J-H, Chen C-L, Ho H-N, Yang Y-S. Relationship between androgen levels and blood pressure in young women with polycystic ovary syndrome. Hypertension. 2007;49:1442-7. (Pubitemid 46809392)
83. Shaw LJ, Bairey Merz CN, Azziz R, Stanczyk FZ, Sopko G, Braunstein GD, et al. Postmenopausal women with a history of irregular menses and elevated androgen measurements at high risk for worsening cardiovascular event-free survival: results from NIH-NHLBI Sponsored Women's Ischemia Syndrome Evaluation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;93:1276-84. (Pubitemid 351519721)
84. Laughlin GA, Barrett-Connor E, Kritz-Silverstein D, von Mühlen D. Hysterectomy, oophorectomy and endogenous sex hormones levels in older women: the Rancho Bernardo study. J Endocrinol Metab. 2000;85:645-51. (Pubitemid 32273648)
85. Krug E, Berga SL. Postmenopausal hyperthecosis: function dysregulation of androgenesis in climacteric ovary. Obstet Gynecol. 1999;99:893-7. (Pubitemid 34442410)
86. Bui HN, Struys EA, Martens F, de Ronde W, Thienpont LM, Kenemans P, et al. Serum testosterone levels measured by isotope dilution-liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry in postmenopausal women versus those in women who underwent bilateral oophorectomy. Ann Clin Biochem. 2010;47:248-52.
87. QuinklerM, Bumke-Vogt C, Meyer B, Bähr V, OelkersW, Diederich S. The human kidney is a progesterone-metabolizing and androgenproducing organ. J Clin Endocrin Metab. 2003;88:2803-9. (Pubitemid 36724459)
88. Lukanova A, Lundin E, Zeleniuch-Jacquotte A, Muti P, Mure A, Rinaldi S, et al. Body mass index, circulating levels of sex steroid hormones, IGF-I and IGF-binding protein-3: a cross-sectional study in healthy women. Eur J Endocrinol. 2004;150:161-71. (Pubitemid 38312809)
89. Malkin CJ, Pugh PJ, Jones RD, Kapoor D, Channer KS, Jones TH. The effect of testosterone replacement on endogenous inflammatory cytokines and lipid profiles in hypogonadal men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89:3313-8. (Pubitemid 38951897)
90. Stanworth RD, Jones TH. Testosterone in obesity, metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes. Front Horm Res. 2009;37:74-90.
91. Ding EL, Song Y, Malik VS, Liu S. Sex differences of endogenous sex hormones and risk of type II diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2006;295:1288-99.
92. Steiner M, Dunn E, Born L. Hormones and mood: from menarche to menopause and beyond. J Affect Disord. 2003;74:67-83. (Pubitemid 36324478)
93. Goldstein BI, Fagiolini A, Houck P, Kupfer DJ. Cardiovascular disease and hypertension among adults with bipolar disorder in the United States. Bipolar Disord. 2009;11:657-62.
94. Lambert E, Dawood T, Straznicky N, Sari C, Schlaich M, Esler M, et al. Association between the sympathetic firing pattern and anxiety level in patients with metabolic syndrome and elevated BP. J Hypertension. 2010;28:543-50.
95. García-VeraMP, Sanz J, Espinosa R, FortúnM, Magán I. Differences in emotional personality traits and stress between sustained hypertension and normotension. Hypertension Res. 2010;33:203-8.
96. Braszko JJ, Karwowska-Polecka W, Halicka D, Gard PR. Captopril and enalapril improve cognition and depressed mood in hypertensive patients. J Basic Clin Physiol Pharmacol. 2003;14:323- 43. (Pubitemid 38679252)