Can bipolar disorder be viewed as a multi-system inflammatory disease?

Journal of Affective Disorders

Volumn 141, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 1-10

  Leboyer, Marion ^a,b   Soreca, Isabella ^b   Scott, Jan ^a,c   Frye, Mark ^d   Henry, Chantal ^a,b   Tamouza, Ryad ^e   Kupfer, David J ^b  

^a UNIVERSITÉ PARIS EST CRÉTEIL   (France)

^b UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^c NEWCASTLE UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

^d MAYO CLINIC   (United States)

^e SAINT LOUIS HOSPITAL   (France)

Author keywords

Bipolar disorder; Cardiovascular disease; Inflammation; Mortality; Prevention; Staging

Indexed keywords

AUTOANTIBODY; C REACTIVE PROTEIN; INTERLEUKIN 1; INTERLEUKIN 2; INTERLEUKIN 4; INTERLEUKIN 6; LITHIUM; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA; VALPROIC ACID;

ATHEROSCLEROSIS; BIPOLAR DISORDER; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CIRCADIAN RHYTHM; COMORBIDITY; DIABETES MELLITUS; ENDOTHELIAL DYSFUNCTION; ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE; EPSTEIN BARR VIRUS; HEALTH BEHAVIOR; HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS; HERPES VIRUS; HUMAN; HYPERLIPIDEMIA; IMMUNE DYSREGULATION; INFLAMMATION; INFLAMMATORY DISEASE; MAJOR AFFECTIVE DISORDER; MEDLINE; MENTAL STRESS; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; MORBIDITY; OBESITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RETROVIRUS; REVIEW; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SIDE EFFECT; SLEEP; STRESS; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; WEIGHT GAIN;

BIPOLAR DISORDER; COMORBIDITY; HUMANS; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; SYSTEMIC INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE SYNDROME;

EID: 84865476334     PISSN: 01650327     EISSN: 15732517     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2011.12.049     Document Type: Review

References (103)

1. B. Ahrens, B. Müller-Oerlinghausen, M. Schou, T. Wolf, M. Alda, E. Grof, P. Grof, G. Lenz, C. Simhandl, and K. Thau Excess cardiovascular and suicide mortality of affective disorders may be reduced by lithium prophylaxis J. Affect. Disord. 33 2 1995 67 75
2. F. Angst, H.H. Stassenm, P.J. Clayton, and J. Angst Mortality of patients with mood disorders: follow up of 34-38 years J. Affect. Disord. 68 2002 167 181 (Pubitemid 34628324)
3. J.M. Antony, G. van Marle, W. Opii, D.A. Butterfield, F. Mallet, V.W. Yong, J.L. Wallace, R.M. Deacon, K. Warren, and C. Power Human endogenous retrovirus glycoprotein-mediated induction of redox reactants causes oligodendrocyte death and demyelination Nat. Neurosci. 7 10 2004 1088 1095 (Pubitemid 41184449)
4. N.T. Ayas, D.P. White, J.E. Manson, M.J. Stampfer, F.E. Speizer, A. Malhotra, and F.B. Hu A prospective study of sleep duration and coronary heart disease in women Arch. Intern. Med. 163 2 2003 205 209 (Pubitemid 36120188)
5. M.S. Bauer, L. Altshuler, D.R. Evans, T. Beresford, W.O. Williford, and R. Hauger Prevalence and distinct correlates of anxiety, substance, and combined comorbidity in a multi-site public sector sample with bipolar disorder J. Affect. Disord. 85 2005 301 315 (Pubitemid 40386514)
6. M. Berk, K.T. Hallam, and P. McGorry The potential utility of a staging model as a course specifier: a bipolar disorder perspective J. Affect. Disord. 100 2007 279 280
7. M. Berk, F. Kapczinski, A.C. Andreazza, O.M. Dean, F. Giorlando, M. Maes, M. Yucel, C.S. Gama, S. Dodd, B. Dean, P.V.S. Magalhaes, P. Amminger, P. McGorry, and G.S. Malhi Pathways underlying neuroprogression in bipolar disorder: focus on inflammation, oxidative stress and neurotrophic factors Neurosci. Behav. Rev. 35 2011 804 817
8. A.B. Birkenaes, S. Opjordsmoen, C. Brunborg, J.A. Engh, H. Jonsdottir, P.A. Ringen, C. Simonsen, A. Vaskinn, K.I. Birkeland, S. Friis, K. Sundet, and O.A. Andreassen The level of cardiovascular risk factors in bipolar disorder equals that of schizophrenia: a comparative study J. Clin. Psychiatry 68 6 2007 917 923 (Pubitemid 47015492)
9. E. Brietzke, L. Sterz, B.S. Fernades, M. Kauer Sant'Anna, M. Mascarenhas, A. Escoteguy Vargas, J.A. Chies, and F. Kapzinski Comparison of cytokine levels in depressed, manic and euthymic patients with bipolar disorder J. Affect. Disord. 116 2009 214 217
10. J. Cardenas, M.A. Frye, S.L. Marusak, E.M. Levander, J.W. Chirichigno, S. Lewis, S. Nakelsky, S. Hwang, J. Mintz, and L.L. Altshuler Modal subcomponents of metabolic syndrome in patients with bipolar disorder J. Affect. Disord. 106 2008 91 97
11. F. Cassidy, E. Ahearn, and B.J. Carroll Elevated frequency of diabetes mellitus in hospitalized manic-depressive patients Am. J. Psychiatry 156 1999 1417 1420 (Pubitemid 29416540)
12. C.K. Chang, R.D. Hayes, G. Perera, M.T. Broadbent, A.C. Fernandes, W.E. Lee, M. Hotopf, and R. Stewart Life expectancy at birth for people with serious mental illness and other major disorders from a secondary mental health care case register in London PLoS One 6 5 2011 e19590
13. E. Corrado, M. Rizzo, G. Coppola, K. Fattouch, G. Novo, I. Marturana, F. Ferrara, and S. Novo An update on the role of markers of inflammation in atherosclerosis J. Atheroscler. Thromb. 17 1 2010 1 11
14. C.U. Correll, A.M. Frederickson, J.M. Kane, and P. Manu Equally increased risk for metabolic syndrome in patients with bipolar disorder and schizophrenia treated with second-generation antipsychotics Bipolar Disord. 10 2008 788 797
15. C.U. Correll Elevated cardiovascular risk in patients with bipolar disorder: when does it start and where does it lead? J. Clin. Psychiatry 69 12 2008 1948 1952
16. J. Dalmau, E. Lancaster, E. Martinez-Hernandez, M.R. Rosenfeld, and R. Balice-Gordon Clinical experience and laboratory investigations in patients with anti-NMDAR encephalitis Lancet Neurol. 10 2011 63 74
17. F.B. Dickerson, J.J. Boronow, C. Stallings, A.E. Origoni, S. Cole, B. Krivogorsky, and R.H. Yolken Infection with herpes simplex virus type 1 is associated with cognitive deficits in bipolar disorder Biol. Psychiatry 55 6 2004 588 593 (Pubitemid 38315032)
18. F. Dickerson, C. Stallings, A. Origoni, J. Boronow, and R.H. Yolken Elevated serum levels of C-reactive protein are associated with mania symptoms in outpatients with bipolar disorder Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 31 4 2007 952 955 (Pubitemid 46660310)
19. F. Dickerson, C. Stallings, A. Origoni, C. Vaughan, S. Khushalani, A. Alaedini, and R. Yolken Markers of gluten sensitivity and celiac disease in bipolar disorder Bipolar Disord. 13 2011 52 58
20. C. Drake, H. Boutin, M.S. Jones, A. Denes, B.W. McColl, J.R. Selvarajah, S. Hulme, R. Georgiou, R. Hinz, A. Gerhard, A. Vail, C. Prenant, P. Julyan, R. Maroy, G. Brown, A. Smigova, K. Herholz, M. Kassiou, D. Crossman, S. Francis, S. Proctor, J.C. Russel, S.L. Hookins, P. Tvrrell, N. Rothweil, and S. Alllan Brain inflammation is induced by co-morbidities and risk factor for stroke Brain Behav. Immun. 25 2011 1113 1122
21. R. Dutta, J. Boydell, N. Kennedy, J. VAN Os, P. Fearon, and R.M. Murray Suicide and other causes of mortality in bipolar disorder: a longitudinal study Psychol. Med. 37 6 2007 839 847 Jun (Pubitemid 46746328)
22. W.W. Eaton, M.G. Pedersen, P.R. Nielsen, and P.B. Mortensen Autoimmune diseases, bipolar disorder, and non-affective psychosis Bipolar Disord. 12 6 2010 638 646
23. B. Etain, C. Heny, F. Bellivier, F. Mathieu, and M. Leboyer Beyond genetics: childhood affective trauma in bipolar disorder Bipolar Disord. 10 2008 867 876
24. S. Evans-Lacko, J. Zeber, J. Gonzales, and R. Olvera Medical comorbidity among youth diagnoses with bipolar disorder in the United States J. Clin. Psychiatry 70 10 2009 1461 1466
25. A. Fagiolini, E. Frank, J.A. Scott, S. Turkin, and D.J. Kupfer Metabolic syndrome in bipolar disorder: findings from the Bipolar Disorder Center for Pennsylvanians Bipolar Disord. 5 2005 424 430 (Pubitemid 41419409)
26. G.A. Fava, and R. Kellner Staging: a neglected dimension in psychiatric classification Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 87 1993 225 230 (Pubitemid 23107270)
27. B.S. Fernandes, C.S. Gama, J.C. Walz, K.M. Cerser, G.R. Fries, G. Colpo, B. Aguiar, B. Pfasffenseller, M. Kauer-Sant'Anna, and F. Kapczinski Increased neurotrophin-3 in drug free subjects with bipolar disorder during manic and depressive episodes J. Psychiatr. Res. 44 9 2010 561 565
28. J.G. Fiedorowicz, N.M. Palagummi, V.L. Forman-Hoffman, D.D. Miller, and W.G. Haynes Elevated prevalence of obesity, metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular risk factors in bipolar disorder Ann. Clin. Psychiatry 20 2008 131 137 (Pubitemid 352009283)
29. J.G. Fiedorowicz, D.A. Solomon, J. Endicott, A.C. Leon, C. Li, J.P. Rice, and W.H. Coryell Manic/hypomanic symptom burden and cardiovascular mortality in bipolar disorder Psychosom. Med. 71 6 2009 598 606
30. N. Frasure-Smith, and F. Lespérance Recent evidence linking coronary heart disease and depression Can. J. Psychiatry 51 2006 730 737 (Pubitemid 44656503)
31. M.P. Garcia-Portilla, P.A. Saiz, M.T. Bascaran, A.S. Martínez, A. Benabarre, P. Sierra, P. Torres, J.M. Montes, M. Bousoño, and J. Bobes Cardiovascular risk in patients with bipolar disorder J. Affect. Disord. 115 3 2009 302 308
32. A.G. Gildengers, E.M. Whyte, R.A. Drayer, I. Soreca, A. Fagiolini, A.M. Kilbourne, P.R. Houck, C.F. Reynolds III, E. Frank, D.J. Kupfer, and B.H. Mulsant Medical burden in late-life bipolar and major depressive disorders Am. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 16 3 2008 194 200
33. B. Goldstein, B. Birmaher, D. Axelson, T. Goldstein, C. Esposito-Smythers, M. Strobre, J. Hunt, H. Leonard, M. Gill, S. Lyengar, C. Grimm, M. Yang, N. Ryan, and M. Keller Preliminary findings regarding overweight and obesity in pediatric bipolar disorder J. Clin. Psychiatry 69 12 2008 1953 1959
34. B.I. Goldstein, D.E. Kemp, J.K. Soczynska, and R.S. McIntyre Inflammation and the phenomenology, pathophysiology, comorbidity, and treatment of bipolar disorder J. Clin. Psychiatry 70 8 2009 1078 1090
35. D.J. Griffiths Endogenous retroviruses in the human genome sequence Genome Biol. 2 6 2001 1017
36. P. Greenland, J.S. Alpert, G.A. Beller, E.J. Benjamin, M.J. Budoff, Z.A. Fayad, E. Foster, M.A. Hlatky, J.M. Hodgson, F.G. Kushner, M.S. Lauer, L.J. Shaw, S.C. Smith Jr., A.J. Taylor, W.S. Weintraub, N.K. Wenger, A.K. Jacobs, S.C. Smith Jr., J.L. Anderson, N. Albert, C.E. Buller, M.A. Creager, S.M. Ettinger, R.A. Guyton, J.L. Halperin, J.S. Hochman, and D.J. Griffiths Endogenous retroviruses in the human genome sequence Genome Biol. 2 6 2001 reviews, 1017-1017.5.
37. N. Hamdani, R. Tamouza, and M. Leboyer Immuno-inflammatory markers of bipolar disorder: a review of evidence Front. Biosci. 4 2012 2170 2182 (Elite Ed)
38. A.G. Harvey Sleep and circadian rhythms in bipolar disorder: seeking synchrony, harmony, and regulation Am. J. Psychiatry 165 7 2008 820 829 (Pubitemid 351948714)
39. C. Henry, B. Etain, F. Mathieu, A. Raust, J.F. Vibert, J. Scott, and M. Leboyer A French network of bipolar expert centres: a model to close the gap between evidence-based medicine and routine practice J. Affect. Disord. 1-3 2011 358 363
40. S. Janelidze, D. Mattei, A. Westrin, L. Träksman-Bendz, and L. Brundin Cytokine levels in the blood may distinguish suicide attempters from depressed patients Brain, behavior and immunity 25 2011 335 339
41. J. Jerrell, R. McIntyre, and A. Tripathi A cohort study of the prevalence and impact of comorbid medical conditions in pediatric bipolar disorder J. Clin. Psychiatry 11 2010 1518 1525
42. L. Johannessen, U. Strudsholm, L. Foldager, and P. Munk-Jørgensen Increased risk of hypertension in patients with bipolar disorder and patients with anxiety compared to background population and patients with schizophrenia J. Affect. Disord. 95 2006 13 17 (Pubitemid 46110785)
43. F. Kapczinski, V. Videira Dias, M. Kauer Sant'Anna, B. Noronha Frey, R. Grassi-Oliveira, F. Colom, and M. Berk Clinical implication of a staging model for bipolar disorders Expert Rev. Neurother. 7 2009 957 966
44. A.M. Kilbourne, J.R. Cornelius, X. Han, H.A. Pincus, M. Shad, I. Salloum, J. Conigliaro, and G.L. Haas Burden of general medical conditions among individuals with bipolar disorder Bipolar Disord. 6 2004 368 373 (Pubitemid 39345287)
45. D.J. Kupfer The increasing medical burden in medical disorder JAMA 20 2005 2528 2530
46. D. Laaksonen, H.M. Lakka, L. Niskanen, G. Kaplan, J. Salonen, and T. Lakka Metabolic syndrome and development of diabetes mellitus: application and validation of recently suggested definitions of the metabolic syndrome in a prospective cohort study Am. J. Epidemiol. 156 2002 1070 1077 (Pubitemid 35396938)
47. W. Laan, D.E. Grobbee, J.-P. Selten, C.J. Heijnen, R.S. Kahn, and H. Burger Adjuvant aspirin therapy reduces symptoms of schizophrenia spectrum disorders: results from a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial J. Clin. Psychiatry 71 5 2010 520 527
48. H.M. Lakka, D.E. Laaksonen, T.A. Lakka, L.K. Niskanen, E. Kumpusalo, J. Tuomilehto, and J.T. Salonen The metabolic syndrome and total and cardiovascular disease mortality in middle-aged men JAMA 288 2002 2709 2716 (Pubitemid 35403784)
49. T. Lange, S. Dimitrov, and J. Born Effects of sleep and circardian rhythm on the human immune system Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1193 2010 48 59
50. K. Lasser, J.W. Boyd, S. Woolhnader, D.U. Himmelstein, D. McCormick, and D.H. Bor Smoking and mental illness: a population-based prevalence study JAMA 284 2000 2606 2610
51. T.M. Laursen Life expectancy among persons with schizophrenia or bipolar affective disorder Schizophr. Res. 131 1-3 2011 101 104
52. B.E. Leonard The concept of depression as a dysfunction of the immune system Curr. Immunol. Rev. 3 2010 205 212
53. D. Lindquist, S. Janelidze, P. Hagell, S. Erhardt, M. Samuelsson, L. Minthon, O. Hansson, M. Björqvist, L. Traskman-Bendz, and L. Brundin Interleukin-6 is elevated in the cerebrospinal fluid of suicide attempters and related to symptom severity Biol Psychiatry 66 2009 287 292
54. L. Lorgis, S. Amoureux, E. de Maistre, P. Sicard, Y. Bejot, M. Zeller, C. Vergely, A. Sequeira-Le-Grand, A.C. Lagrost, J. Nerchoud, Y. Cottin, and L. Rohcette Serum brain derived neurotrophic facrot and platelet activation evaluated by soluble-P-selectin and solubre CD-40-ligand in patients with acute myocardial infarction Fundam. Clin. Pharmacol. 4 2010 525 530
55. M. Maes, P. Ruckoanich, Y.S. Chang, N. Mahanonda, and M. Berk Multiple aberrations in shared inflammatory and oxidative & nitrosative stress (IO&NS) pathways explain the co-association of depression and cardiovascular disorder (CVD) and the increased risk for CVD and due mortality in depressed patients Prog. Neuro. Psychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 35 2011 769 783
56. G. Maina, V. Salvi, A. Vitalucci, V. D'Ambrosio, and F. Bogetto Prevalence and correlates of overweight in drug-naïve patients with bipolar disorder J. Affect. Disord. 110 1-2 2008 149 155
57. J.M. McCaffery, N. Frasure-Smith, M.P. Dube, P. Théroux, G. Rouleau, Q. Duan, and F. Lesperance Common genetic vulnerability to depressive symptoms and coronary artery disease: a review and development of candidate genes related to inflammation and serotonin Psychosom. Med. 68 2006 187 200 (Pubitemid 43740120)
58. S.L. McElroy, M.A. Frye, T. Suppes, D. Dhavale, P.E. Keck Jr., G.S. Leverich, L. Altshuler, K.D. Denicoff, W.A. Nolen, R. Kupka, H. Grunze, J. Walden, and R.M. Post Correlates of overweight and obesity in 644 patients with bipolar disorder J. Clin. Psychiatry 63 2002 207 213 (Pubitemid 34407079)
59. P. McGorry, B. Nelson, S. Goldstone, and A. Yung Clinical staging: a heuristic and practical strategy for new research and better health and social outcomes for psychotic and related mood disorders Can. J. Psychiatry 55 8 2010 486 497
60. R.S. McIntyre, M. Danilewiz, S. Liauw, D. Kemp, H. Nguyen, L. Kahn, A. Kucyi, J. Soczynska, H. Woldeyohannes, A. Lachowski, B. Kim, J. Nathanson, M. Alsuwaidan, and V. Taylor Bipolar disorder and metabolic syndrome: an international perspective J. Affect. Disord. 126 2010 366 387
61. A.H. Miller, V. Maletic, and C.L. Raison Inflammation and its discontents: the role of cytokines in the pathophysiology of major depression Biol. Psychiatry 65 9 2009 May 1 732 741 May 1
62. J.A. Morón, I. Zakharova, J.V. Ferrer, G.A. Merrill, B. Hope, E.M. Lafer, Z.C. Lin, J.B. Wang, J.A. Javitch, A. Galli, and T.S. Shippenberg Mitogen activated protein kinase regulates dopamine transporter surface expression and dopamine transport capacity J. Neurosci. 23 2003 8480 8488 (Pubitemid 37158747)
63. N. Muller, and M.J. Schwartz The immune-mediated alteration of serotonin and glutamate: towards an integrated view of depression Mol. Psychiatry 12 2007 988 1000 (Pubitemid 350006207)
64. B. Müller-Oerlinghausen, A. Berghöfer, and B. Ahrens The antisuicidal and mortality-reducing effect of lithium prophylaxis: consequences for guidelines in clinical psychiatry Can. J. Psychiatry 48 7 2003 433 439 (Pubitemid 37295200)
65. B. Müller-Oerlinghausen, W. Felber, A. Berghöfer, E. Lauterbach, and B. Ahrens The impact of lithium long-term medication on suicidal behavior and mortality of bipolar patients Arch. Suicide Res. 9 3 2005 307 319 (Pubitemid 40977551)
66. J.M. Mullington, M. Haack, M. Toth, J.M. Serrador, and H.K. Meier-Ewert Cadiovascular, inflammatory and metabolic consequences of sleep deprivation Progr. Cardiovasc. Dis. 51 2009 294 302
67. Murray, D.P., Weiner, M., Prabhakar, M., Fiedorowicz, J.G., 2009. Mania and mortality: why the excess cardiovascular risk in bipolar disorder? 11(6), 475-480.
68. A.M. Mynt, Y.K. Kim, R. Yerkerk, S. Sharpe, H. Steinbusch, and B. Leonard Kynurenine pathway in major depression: evidence of impaired neuroprotection J. Affect. Disord. 98 1-2 2007 143 151 (Pubitemid 46048912)
69. NCEP Executive summary: the Third Report of The National Cholesterol Education Program. Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III) JAMA 285 2001 2486 2497
70. J.W. Newcomer Comparing the safety and efficacy of atypical antipsychotics in psychiatric patients with comorbid medical illnesses J. Clin. Psychiatry 70 3 2009 30 36
71. F. Ng, O.K. Mammen, I. Wilting, G.S. Sachs, I.N. Ferrier, F. Cassidy, S. Beaulieu, L.N. Yatham, and M. Berk International Society for Bipolar Disorders. The International Society for Bipolar Disorders (ISBD) consensus guidelines for the safety monitoring of bipolar disorder treatments Bipolar Disord. 11 6 2009 559 595
72. NICE Guideline Development Group The Management of Bipolar Disorder in Adults, Children and Adolescents in Primary and Secondary Care 2006 National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health UK
73. D.M. Novick, H.A. Swartz, and E. Frank Suicide attempts in bipolar I and bipolar II disorder: a review and meta-analysis of the evidence Bipolar Disord. 12 1 2010 1 9 Feb
74. J.U. Ohaeri, and D.P. Akani Metabolic syndrome in severe mental disorders Metab. Snyd. Relat. Disord. 9 2 2011 91 98
75. U. Osby, L. Brandt, N. Correia, A. Ekbom, and P. Sparén Excess mortality in bipolar and unipolar disorder in Sweden Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 58 2001 844 850 (Pubitemid 32979302)
76. R.C. Padmos, M.H. Hillergers, E.M. Knijff, R. Vonk, A. Bouvy, F. Stall, D.D. de Ridder, R.W. Kupka, W.A. Noeln, and H.A. Drexhage A discriminating messenger RNA signature for bipolar disorder formed by aberrant expression of inflammatory genes in monocytes Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 65 4 2008 395 407 (Pubitemid 351519889)
77. B. Parsons, D. Alllison, A. Loebel, K. Williams, E. Giller, S. Romano, and C. Siu Weight effects associated with antipsychotics: a comprehensive database analysis Schizophr. Res. 120 2009 103 110
78. J.A. Pasco, G.C. Nicholson, L.J. Williams, F.N. Jacka, M.J. Henry, M.A. Kotowicz, H.G. Schneider, B.E. Leonard, and M. Berk Association of high-sensitivity C-reactive protein with de novo major depression Br. J. Psychiatry 197 5 2010 372 377
79. C. Perris, and G. d'Ellia A study of bipolar (manic-depressive) and unipolar recurrent depressive psychoses Acta Psychiatrica Scand. 164 1996 172 189
80. C.L. Raison, L. Capuron, and A.H. Miller Cytokines sing the blues: inflammation and the pathogenesis of depression Trends Immunol. 27 2006 24 31 (Pubitemid 43083561)
81. T. Raphael, and J.P. Parsons Blood sugar studies in dementia praecox and manic-depressive insanity Arch. Neurol. Psychiatry 5 1921 687 709
82. B. Roshanaei-Moghaddam, and W. Katon Premature mortality from general medical illnesses among persons with bipolar disorder: a review Psychiatr. Serv. 60 2 2009 147 156
83. R. Ross Atherosclerosis is an inflammatory disease Am. Heart J. 138 1999 S419 S420
84. B.P. Rutten, and J. Mill Epigenetic mediation of environmental influences in major psychotic disorders Schizophr. Bull. 35 6 2009 1045 1056
85. V. Salvi, V. D'Ambrosio, G. Rosso, F. Bogetto, and G. Maina Age-specific prevalence of metabolic syndrome in Italian patients with bipolar disorder Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 65 2011 47 54
86. J. Scott, Y. McNeill, J. Cavanagh, M. Cannon, and R. Murray Exposure to obstetric complications and subsequent development of bipolar disorder: systematic review Br. J. Psychiatry 189 2006 3 11 (Pubitemid 44023323)
87. E.G. Severance, F.B. Dickerson, M. Halling, B. Krivogorsky, L. Haile, S. Yang, C.R. Stallings, A.E. Origoni, I. Bossis, J. Xiao, D. Dupont, W. Haasnoot, and R.H. Yolken Subunit and whole molecule specificity of the anti-bovine casein immune response in recent onset psychosis and schizophrenia Schizophr. Res. 118 1-3 2011 240 247
88. I. Soreca, A. Fagiolini, E. Frank, P.R. Houck, W.K. Thompson, and D.J. Kupfer Relationship of general medical burden, duration of illness, and age in patients with bipolar I disorder J. Psychiatr. Res. 42 11 2008 956 961
89. N. Sutkowski, B. Conrad, D.A. Thorley-Lawson, and B.T. Huber Epstein-Barr virus transactivates the human endogenous retrovirus HERV-K18 that encodes a superantigen Immunity 15 4 2001 579 589 (Pubitemid 33016443)
90. S.Y. Tsai, C.J. Kuo, K.H. Chung, Y.L. Huang, H.C. Lee, and C.C. Chen Cognitive dysfunction and medical morbidity in elderly outpatients with bipolar disorder Am. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 17 12 2009 1004 1011
91. L.H. Tonelli, J. Stiller, D. Rujescu, I. Giegling, B. Schneider, K. Maurer, A. Schnabel, H.J. Moller, H.H. Chen, and T.T. Postolache Elevated cytokine expression in the orbitofrontal cortex of victims of suicide Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 117 2008 198 206 (Pubitemid 351207982)
92. S.Y. Tsai, C.H. Lee, C.J. Kuo, and C.C. Chen A retrospective analysis of risk and protective factors for natural death in bipolar disorder J. Clin. Psychiatry 66 2005 1586 1591
93. M.T. Tsuang, R.F. Woolson, and J.A. Fleming Premature deaths in schizophrenia and affective disorders. An analysis of survival curves and variables affecting the shortened survival Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 37 9 1980 979 983 (Pubitemid 10004695)
94. E. Vieta, M. Reinares, and A.R. Rosa Staging bipolar disorder Neurotox. Res. 19 2011 279 285
95. R. Vonk, A.C. van der Schot, R.S. Kahn, W.A. Nolen, and H.A. Drexhage Is autoimmune thyroiditis part of the genetic vulnerability (or an endophenotype) for bipolar disorder? Biol. Psychiatry 62 2 2007 135 140 (Pubitemid 46963249)
96. K. Wager-Smith, and A. Markou Depression: a repair response to stress-induced neuronal microdamage that can grade into a chronic neuroinflammatory condition? Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 35 2011 742 764
97. A. Weeke, K. Juel, and M. Vaeth Cardiovascular death and manic-depressive psychosis J. Affect. Disord. 13 1987 287 292 (Pubitemid 18049394)
98. M. Weiner, L. Warren, and J.G. Fiedorowicz Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in bipolar disorder Ann. Clin. Psychiatry 23 1 2011 40 47
99. S. Weis, I.C. Llenos, S. Sabunciyan, J.R. Dulay, L. Isler, R. Yolken, and H. Perron Reduced expression of human endogenous retrovirus (HERV)-W GAG protein in the cingulate gyrus and hippocampus in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and depression J. Neural Transm. 114 5 2007 645 655 (Pubitemid 46664044)
100. M.D. Williams, N.D. Shah, A.E. Wagie, D.L. Wood, and M.A. Frye Direct costs of bipolar disorder versus other chronic conditions: an employer-based health plan analysis Psychiatr. Serv. 62 9 2011 1073 1078
101. World Health Organization The Global Burden of Disease 2008
102. W.R. Yates, and R. Wallace Cardiovascular risk factors in affective disorder J. Affect. Disord. 12 1987 129 134 (Pubitemid 17071787)
103. C.B. Zhu, R.D. Blakely, and W.A. Hewlett The proinflammatory cytokines IL-1 beta and TNF-alpha activates serotonin transporters Neuropsychopharmacology 31 2006 2121 2131 (Pubitemid 44413189)