Meta-analysis and sexual selection: Past studies and future possibilities

Evolutionary Ecology

Volumn 26, Issue 5, 2012, Pages 1119-1151

  Jennions, Michael D ^a   Kahn, Andrew T ^a   Kelly, Clint D ^b   Kokko, Hanna ^a  

^a AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^b IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Inbreeding; Intra specific variation; Mate choice; Mating success; Polyandry; Sex ratio; Sperm competition

Indexed keywords

EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY; FITNESS; FUTURE PROSPECT; GAME THEORY; IMMUNE SYSTEM; INBREEDING; INTRASPECIFIC VARIATION; LIFE HISTORY TRAIT; MATE CHOICE; META-ANALYSIS; POLYANDRY; REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS; SEX RATIO; SEX-RELATED DIFFERENCE; SEXUAL SELECTION; SIGNAL; SURVIVAL; TRADE-OFF;

EID: 84865416951     PISSN: 02697653     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10682-012-9567-1     Document Type: Article

References (170)

1. Abouheif E (1999) A method for testing the assumption of phylogenetic independence in comparative data. Evol Ecol Res 1: 895-909.
2. Adams DC (2008) Phylogenetic meta-analysis. Evolution 62: 567-572.
3. Akcay E, Roughgarden J (2007) Extra-pair paternity in birds: review of the genetic benefits. Evol Ecol Res 9: 855-868.
4. Albrecht T, Kreisinger J, Piálek J (2006) The strength of direct selection against female promiscuity is associated with rates of extrapair fertilizations in socially monogamous songbirds. Am Nat 167: 739-744.
5. Arnqvist G, Kirkpatrick M (2005) The evolution of infidelity in socially monogamous passerines: the strength of direct and indirect selection on extrapair copulation behavior in females. Am Nat 165: S26-S37.
6. Arnqvist G, Nilsson T (2000) The evolution of polyandry: multiple mating and female fitness in insects. Anim Behav 60: 145-164.
7. Arnqvist G, Wooster D (1995) Metaanalysis-synthesizing research findings in ecology and evolution. Trends Ecol Evol 10: 236-240.
8. Arnqvist G, Rowe L, Krupa JJ, Sih A (1996) Assortative mating by size: a meta-analysis of mating patterns in water striders. Evol Ecol 10: 265-284.
9. Beirinckx K, van Gossum H, Lajuenesse M, Forbes MR (2006) Sex biases in dispersal and philopatry: insights from a meta-analysis based on capture-mark-recapture studies of damselflies. Oikos 113: 539-547.
10. Bell AM, Hankison SJ, Laskowski KL (2009) The repeatability of behavior: a meta-analysis. Anim Behav 77: 771-783.
11. Bernasconi G, Hellriegel B (2005) Fertilization competence and sperm size variation in sperm-heteromorphic insects. Evol Ecol 19: 45-54.
12. Blackburn TM, Cassey P, Lockwood JL (2009) The role of species traits in the establishment success of exotic birds. Glob Change Biol 15: 2852-2860.
13. Blanckenhorn WU, Stillwell RC, Young KA, Fox CW, Ashton KG (2006) When Rensch meets Bergmann: does sexual size dimorphism change systematically with latitude? Evolution 60: 2004-2011.
14. Blows M (2007) Complexity for complexity's sake? J Evol Biol 20: 39-44.
15. Boncoraglio G, Saino N (2007) Habitat structure and the evolution of bird song: a meta-analysis of the evidence for the acoustic adaptation hypothesis. Funct Ecol 21: 134-142.
16. Bonduriansky R (2007) Sexual selection and allometry: a critical reappraisal of the evidence and ideas. Evolution 61: 838-849.
17. Boonekamp JJ, Ros AHF, Verhulst S (2008) Immune activation suppresses plasma testosterone level: a meta-analysis. Biol Lett 4: 741-744.
18. Briffa M, Sneddon LU (2010) Contest behaviour. In: Westneat DF, Fox CW (eds) Evolutionary behavioural ecology. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 248-265.
19. Britten HB (1996) Meta-analyses of the association between multilocus heterozygosity and fitness. Evolution 50: 2158-2164.
20. Brown GR, Silk JB (2002) Reconsidering the null hypothesis: is maternal rank associated with birth sex ratios in primate groups? Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99: 11252-11255.
21. Burley N (1986) Sex-ratio manipulation in color-banded populations of zebra finches. Evolution 40: 1191-1206.
22. Cameron EZ (2004) Facultative adjustment of mammalian sex ratios in support of the Trivers-Willard hypothesis: evidence for a mechanism. Proc R Soc B 271: 1723-1728.
23. Candolin U, Heuschele J (2008) Is sexual selection beneficial during adaptation to environmental change? Trend Ecol Evol 23: 446-452.
24. Cassey P, Ewen JG, Blackburn TM, Møller AP (2004) A survey of publication bias within evolutionary ecology. Proc R Soc B 271: S451-S454.
25. Cassey P, Ewen JG, Møller AP (2006) Facultative primary sex ratio variation: a lack of evidence in birds (vol 271 pg 1277 2004). Proc R Soc B 273: 3129-3130.
26. Castellanos MC, Verdú M (2012) Meta-analysis of meta-analyses in plant evolutionary ecology. Evol Ecol (in press).
27. Chapman JR, Nakagawa S, Coltman DW, Slate J, Sheldon BC (2009) A quantitative review of heterozygosity-fitness correlations in animal populations. Mol Ecol 18: 2746-2765.
28. Chapman JR, Nakagawa S, Coltman DW, Slate J, Sheldon BC (2011) A quantitative review of heterozygosity-fitness correlations in animal populations (correction). Mol Ecol 20: 2655.
29. Chenoweth SF, McGuigan K (2010) The genetic basis of sexually selected variation. Ann Rev Ecol Evol Syst 41: 81-101.
30. Cleasby IR, Nakagawa S (2012) The influence of male age on within-pair and extra-pair paternity in passerines. Ibis (in press).
31. Coltman DW, Slate J (2003) Microsatellite measures of inbreeding: a meta-analysis. Evolution 57: 971-983.
32. Cotton S, Fowler K, Pomiankowski A (2004) Do sexual ornaments demonstrate heightened condition-dependent expression as predicted by the handicap hypothesis? Proc R Soc B 271: 771-783.
33. Cotton S, Small J, Pomiankowski A (2006) Sexual selection and condition-dependent mate preferences. Curr Biol 16: R755-R765.
34. DelBarco-Trillo J (2011) Adjustment of sperm allocation under high risk of sperm competition across taxa: a meta-analysis. J Evol Biol 24: 1706-1714.
35. Dubois F, Cezilly F (2002) Breeding success and mate retention in birds: a meta-analysis. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 52: 357-364.
36. Edward DA, Fricke C, Chapman T (2010) Adaptations to sexual selection and sexual conflict: insights from experimental evolution and artificial selection. Phil Trans R Soc B 365: 2541-2548.
37. Eliassen S, Kokko H (2008) Current analyses do not resolve whether extra-pair paternity is male or female driven. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 62: 1795-1804.
38. Evans JP (2010) Quantitative genetic evidence that males trade attractiveness for ejaculate quality in guppies. Proc R Soc B 277: 3195-3201.
39. Evans SR, Hinks AE, Wilkin TA, Sheldon BC (2010) Age sex and beauty: methodological dependence of age- and sex-dichromatism in the great tit Parus major. Biol J Linn Soc 101: 777-796.
40. Ewen JG, Cassey P, Møller AP (2004) Facultative primary a lack of evidence sex ratio variation: a lack of evidence in birds? Proc R Soc B 271: 1277-1282.
41. Fiske P, Rintamaki PT, Karvonen E (1998) Mating success in lekking males: a meta-analysis. Behav Ecol 9: 328-338.
42. Folstad I, Karter AJ (1992) Parasites, bright males, and the immunocompetence handicap. Am Nat 139: 603-622.
43. Forsgren E, Amundsen T, Borg ÅA, Bjelvenmark J (2004) Unusually dynamic sex roles in a fish. Nature 429: 551-554.
44. Forstmeier W, Schielzeth H (2011) Cryptic multiple hypotheses testing in linear models: overestimated effect sizes and the winner's curse. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 65: 47-55.
45. Fox CW, Reed DH (2011) Inbreeding depression increases with environmental stress: an experimental study and meta-analysis. Evolution 65: 246-258.
46. Freckleton RP (2009) The seven deadly sins of comparative analysis. J Evol Biol 22: 1367-1375.
47. Garamszegi LZ (2005) Bird song and parasites. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 59: 167-180.
48. Garamszegi LZ, Eens M (2004) Brain space for a learned task: strong intraspecific evidence for neural correlates of singing behavior in songbirds. Brain Res Rev 4: 187-193.
49. Garamszegi LZ, Møller AP (2004) Extrapair paternity and the evolution of bird song. Behav Ecol 15: 508-519.
50. Garamszegi LZ, Møller AP (2010) Effects of sample size and intraspecific variation in phylogenetic comparative studies: a meta-analytic review. Biol Rev 85: 797-805.
51. Garamszegi LZ, Møller AP (2011) Nonrandom variation in within-species sample size and missing data in phylogenetic comparative studies. Syst Biol 60: 876-880.
52. Garamszegi LZ, Torok J, Hegy G, Szöllõs E, Rosivall B, Eens M (2007) Age-dependent expression of song in the collared flycatcher, Ficedula albicollis. Ethology 113: 246-256.
53. Gontard-Danek MC, Møller AP (1999) The strength of sexual selection: a meta-analysis of bird studies. Behav Ecol 10: 476-486.
54. Gowaty PA (2008) Reproductive compensation. J Evol Biol 21: 1189-1200.
55. Griffin AS, Sheldon BC, West SA (2005) Cooperative breeders adjust offspring sex ratios to produce helpful helpers. Am Nat 166: 628-632.
56. Griffith SC (2007) The evolution of infidelity in socially monogamous passerines: Neglected components of direct and indirect selection. Am Nat 169: 274-281.
57. Griffith SC, Immler S (2009) Female infidelity and genetic compatibility in birds: the role of the genetically loaded raffle in understanding the function of extrapair paternity. J Avian Biol 40: 97-101.
58. Griffith SC, Parker TH, Olson VA (2006) Melanin-versus carotenoid-based sexual signals: is the difference really so black and red? Anim Behav 71: 749-763.
59. Grueber CE, Nakagawa S, Laws RJ, Jamieson IG (2011) Multimodel inference in ecology and evolution: challenges and solutions. J Evol Biol 24: 699-711.
60. Gurevitch J, Morrow LL, Wallace A, Walsh JS (1992) A metaanalysis of competition in field experiments. Am Nat 140: 539-572.
61. Hadfield JD, Nakagawa S (2010) General quantitative genetic methods for comparative biology: phylogenies, taxonomies and multi-trait models for continuous and categorical characters. J Evol Biol 23: 494-508.
62. Hamilton WJ, Poulin R (1997) The Hamilton and Zuk hypothesis revisited: a meta-analytical approach. Behaviour 134: 299-320.
63. Hardy ICW, Field SA (1998) Logistic analysis of animal contests. Anim Behav 56: 787-792.
64. Harper DGC (1999) Feather mites pectoral muscle condition wing length and plumage coloration of passerines. Anim Behav 58: 553-562.
65. Harris WE, Uller T (2009) Reproductive investment when mate quality varies: differential allocation versus reproductive compensation. Phil Trans R Soc B 364: 1039-1048.
66. Harrison F, Barta Z, Cuthill I, Székely T (2009) How is sexual conflict over parental care resolved? A meta-analysis. J Evol Biol 22: 1800-1812.
67. Hayward A, Gillooly JF (2011) The cost of sex: quantifying energetic investment in gamete production by males and females. PlosONE 6: e16557.
68. Hirschenhauser K, Oliveira RF (2006) Social modulation of androgens in male vertebrates: meta-analyses of the challenge hypothesis. Anim Behav 71: 265-277.
69. Horváthová T, Nakagawa S, Uller T (2012) Strategic female reproductive investment in response to male attractiveness in birds. Proc R Soc B 279: 163-170.
70. Hunt J, Hodgson D (2010) What is fitness, and how do we measure it? In: Westneat DF, Fox CW (eds) Evolutionary behavioural ecology. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 46-70.
71. Hunt J, Brooks R, Jennions MD, Smith MJ, Bentsen CL, Bussière LF (2004) High-quality male field crickets invest heavily in sexual display but die young. Nature 432: 1024-1027.
72. Hunt J, Breuker CJ, Sadowski JA, Moore AJ (2009) Male-male competition, female mate choice and their interaction: determining total sexual selection. J Evol Biol 22: 13-26.
73. Jennions MD, Møller AP (2002) Relationships fade with time: a meta-analysis of temporal trends in publication in ecology and evolution. Proc R Soc B 269: 43-48.
74. Jennions MD, Møller AP, Petrie M (2001) Sexually selected traits and adult survival: a meta-analysis. Q Rev Biol 76: 3-36.
75. Jennions MD, Kokko H, Klug H (2012a) The opportunity to be misled in studies of sexual selection. J Evol Biol 25: 591-598.
76. Jennions MD, Lortie C, Koricheva J (2012b) Using meta-analysis to test ecological and evolutionary theory. In: Koricheva J, Gurevitch J, Mengersen K (eds) Handbook of meta-analysis in ecology and evolution. Princeton University Press, Princeton (in press).
77. Jennions MD, Lortie C, Rosenberg M, Rothstein H (2012c) Publication and related biases. In: Koricheva J, Gurevitch J, Mengersen K (eds) Handbook of meta-analysis in ecology and evolution. Princeton University Press, Princeton (in press).
78. Jones KS, Nakagawa S, Sheldon BC (2009) Environmental sensitivity in relation to size and sex in birds: meta-regression analysis. Am Nat 174: 122-133.
79. Kahneman D (2011) Thinking, fast and slow. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York.
80. Kelly CD (2008) The interrelationships between resource-holding potential, resource-value and reproductive success in territorial males: how much variation can we explain? Behav Ecol Sociobiol 62: 855-871.
81. Kelly CD, Jennions MD (2011) Sexual selection and sperm quantity: meta-analyses of strategic ejaculation. Biol Rev 86: 863-884.
82. Kempenaers B (2007) Mate choice and genetic quality: a review of the heterozygosity theory. Adv Study Behav 37: 189-278.
83. Kingsolver J, Diamond S, Siepelski A, Carlson S (2012) Synthetic analyses of phenotypic selection in natural populations: lessons, limitations and future directions. Evol Ecol (in press).
84. Knowles SCL, Nakagawa S, Sheldon BC (2009) Elevated reproductive effort increases blood parasitaemia and decreases immune function in birds: a meta-regression approach. Funct Ecol 23: 405-415.
85. Kodric-Brown A, Sibly RM, Brown JH (2006) The allometry of ornaments and weapons. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103: 8733-8738.
86. Kokko H (2001) Fisherian and 'good genes' benefits of mate choice: how (not) to distinguish between them. Ecol Lett 4: 322-326.
87. Kokko H (2011) Directions in modelling partial migration: how adaptation can cause a population decline and why the rules of territory acquisition matter. Oikos 120: 1826-1837.
88. Kokko H, Jennions MD (2008) Parental investment, sexual selection and sex ratios. J Evol Biol 21: 919-948.
89. Kokko H, Ots I (2006) When not to avoid inbreeding. Evolution 60: 467-475.
90. Kokko H, Rankin DJ (2006) Lonely hearts or sex in the city? Density-dependent effects in mating systems. Phil Trans R Soc B 361: 319-334.
91. Kokko H, Jennions MD, Brooks RC (2006a) Unifying and testing models of sexual selection. Ann Rev Ecol Evol Syst 37: 43-66.
92. Kokko H, López-Sepulcre A, Morrell LJ (2006b) From hawks and doves to self-consistent games of territorial behavior. Am Nat 167: 901-912.
93. Koricheva J, Gurevitch J, Mengersen K (2012) Handbook of meta-analysis in ecology and evolution. Princeton University Press, Princeton.
94. Kraaijeveld KF, Kraaijeveld-Smit JL, Komdeur J (2007) The evolution of mutual ornamentation. Anim Behav 74: 657-677.
95. Kraaijeveld KF, Kraaijeveld-Smit JL, Maan ME (2011) Sexual selection and speciation: the comparative evidence revisited. Biol Rev 86: 367-377.
96. Krasnov BR, Stanko M, Matthee SM, Laudisoit A, Leirs H, Khokhlova IS, Korallo-Vinarskaya NP, Vinarski MV, Morand S (2011) Male hosts drive infracommunity structure of ectoparasites. Oecologia 166: 1099-1110.
97. Lajeunesse MJ (2009) Meta-analysis and the comparative phylogenetic method. Am Nat 174: 369-381.
98. Lea AJ, Blumstein DT (2011) Ontogenetic and sex differences influence alarm call responses in mammals: a meta-analysis. Ethology 117: 839-851.
99. Leamy LJ, Klingenberg CP (2005) The genetics and evolution of fluctuating asymmetry. Ann Rev Ecol Evol Syst 36: 1-21.
100. Leung B, Forbes MR (1996) Fluctuating asymmetry in relation to stress and fitness: effects of trait type as revealed by meta-analysis. Ecoscience 3: 400-413.
101. Matthe S, McGeoch MA, Krasnov BR (2010) Parasite-specific variation and the extent of male-biased parasitism; an example with a South African rodent and ectoparasitic arthropods. Parasitology 137: 651-660.
102. McCurdy DG, Shutler D, Mullie A, Forbes MR (1998) Sex-biased parasitism of avian hosts: relations to blood parasite taxon and mating system. Oikos 82: 303-312.
103. Meunier JS, Pinto F, Burri T, Roulin A (2011) Eumelanin-based coloration and fitness parameters in birds: a meta-analysis. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 65: 559-567.
104. Milner RNC, Detto T, Jennions MD, Backwell PRY (2010) Experimental evidence for a seasonal shift in the strength of a female mating preference. Behav Ecol 21: 311-316.
105. Møller AP, Alatalo RV (1999) Good-genes effects in sexual selection. Proc R Soc B 266: 85-91.
106. Møller AP, Jennions MD (2001) How important are direct fitness benefits of sexual selection? Naturwissenschaften 88: 401-415.
107. Møller AP, Jennions MD (2002) How much variance can be explained by ecologists and evolutionary biologists? Oecologia 132: 492-500.
108. Møller AP, Ninni P (1998) Sperm competition and sexual selection: a meta-analysis of paternity studies of birds. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 43: 345-358.
109. Møller AP, Saino N (2004) Immune response and survival. Oikos 104: 299-304.
110. Møller AP, Thornhill R (1997) A meta-analysis of the heritability of developmental stability. J Evol Biol 10: 1-16.
111. Møller AP, Thornhill R (1998a) Bilateral symmetry and sexual selection: a meta-analysis. Am Nat 151: 174-192.
112. Møller AP, Thornhill R (1998b) Male parental care, differential parental investment by females and sexual selection. Anim Behav 55: 1507-1515.
113. Møller AP, Christe P, Erritzoe J, Maravez J (1998) Condition, disease and immune defence. Oikos 83: 301-306.
114. Møller AP, Christe P, Lux E (1999) Parasitism, host immune function and sexual selection. Q Rev Biol 74: 3-20.
115. Møller AP, Thornhill R, Gangestad SW (2005) Direct and indirect tests for publication bias: asymmetry and sexual selection. Anim Behav 70: 497-506.
116. Molloy PP, Reynolds JD, Gage MJG, Mosqueria I, Cote IM (2008) Links between sex change and fish densities in marine protected areas. Biol Conserv 141: 187-197.
117. Moore SL, Wilson K (2002) Parasites as a viability cost of sexual selection in natural populations of mammals. Science 297: 2015-2018.
118. Morrissey M, Hadfield J (2012) Directional selection in temporally replicated studies is remarkably consistent. Evolution (in press).
119. Muller W, Eens M (2009) Elevated yolk androgen levels and the expression of multiple sexually selected male characters. Hormones Behav 55: 175-181.
120. Nakagawa S, Cuthill IC (2007) Effect size, confidence interval and statistical significance: a practical guide for biologists. Biol Rev 779(82): 591-605.
121. Nakagawa S, Santos ESA (2012) Methodological issues and advances in biological meta-analysis. Evol Ecol (in press).
122. Nakagawa S, Ockendon N, Gillespie DOS, Hatchwell BJ, Burke T (2007) Assessing the function of house sparrows' bib size using a flexible meta-analysis method. Behav Ecol 18: 831-840.
123. Nunn CL, Lindenfors P, Pursall ER, Rolff J (2009) On sexual dimorphism in immune function. Phil Trans R Soc B 364: 61-69.
124. O'Grady JJ, Brook BW, Reed DH, Ballou JD, Tonkyn DW, Frankham R (2006) Realistic levels of inbreeding depression strongly affect extinction risk in wild populations. Biol Conserv 133: 42-51.
125. Palmer AR (1999) Detecting publication bias in meta-analyses: a case study of fluctuating asymmetry and sexual selection. Am Nat 154: 220-233.
126. Palmer AR (2000) Quasireplication and the contract of error: lessons from sex ratios, heritabilities and fluctuating asymmetry. Ann Rev Ecol Syst 31: 441-480.
127. Parker TH, Ligon JD (2003) Female mating preferences in red junglefowl: a meta-analysis. Ethol Ecol Evol 15: 63-72.
128. Parker TH, Barr IR, Griffith SC (2006) The blue tit's song is an inconsistent signal of male condition. Behav Ecol 17: 1029-1040.
129. Peek MS, Leffler AJ, Flint SD, Ryel RJ (2003) How much variance is explained by ecologists? Additional perspectives. Oecologia 137: 161-170.
130. Poissant J, Wilson AJ, Coltman DW (2010) Sex-specific genetic variance and the evolution of sexual dimorphism: a systematic review of cross-sex genetic correlations. Evolution 64: 97-107.
131. Pomiankowski A, Møller AP (1995) A resolution of the lek paradox. Proc R Soc B 1357: 21-29.
132. Poulin R (1996a) Helminth growth in vertebrate hosts: does host sex matter? Int J Parasitol 26: 1311-1315.
133. Poulin R (1996b) Sexual inequalities in helminth infections: a cost of being a male? Am Nat 147: 287-295.
134. Poulin R (2000) Manipulation of host behaviour by parasites: a weakening paradigm? Proc R Soc B 267: 787-792.
135. Poulin R, Forbes MR (2012) Meta-analysis and research on host-parasite interactions: past and future. Evol Ecol (in press).
136. Randler C (2008) Mating patterns in avian hybrid zones-a meta-analysis and review. Ardea 96: 73-80.
137. Ratikanen I, Kokko H (2010) Differential allocation and compensation: who deserves the silver spoon. Behav Ecol 21: 192-200.
138. Reed DH, Frankham R (2003) Correlation between fitness and genetic diversity. Conserv Biol 117: 230-237.
139. Reznick D, Nunney L, Tessier A (2000) Big houses, big cars, superfleas and the costs of reproduction. Trend Ecol Evol 15: 421-425.
140. Roberts ML, Buchanan KL, Evans MR (2004) Testing the immunocompetence handicap hypothesis: a review of the evidence. Anim Behav 68: 227-239.
141. Santos ES, Scheck AD, Nakagawa S (2011) Dominance and plumage traits: meta-analysis and metaregression analysis. Anim Behav 82: 3-19.
142. Schalk G, Forbes MR (1997) Male biases in parasitism of mammals: effects of study type host age and parasite taxon. Oikos 78: 67-74.
143. Schino G (2004) Birth sex ratio and social rank: consistency and variability within and between primate groups. Behav Ecol 15: 850-856.
144. Schmoll T (2011) A review and perspective on context-dependent genetic effects of extra-pair mating in birds. J Ornithol 152: S265-S277.
145. Sheldon BC (2000) Differential allocation: tests, mechanisms and implications. Trends Ecol Evol 15: 398-402.
146. Sheldon BC, West SA (2004) Maternal dominance maternal condition and offspring sex ratio in ungulate mammals. Am Nat 163: 40-54.
147. Sheridan LAD, Poulin R, Ward DF, Zuk M (2000) Sex differences in parasitic infections among arthropod hosts: is there a male bias? Oikos 88: 327-334.
148. Siepielski AM, DiBattista JD, Carlson SD (2009) It's about time: the temporal dynamics of phenotypic selection in the wild. Ecol Lett 12: 1261-1276.
149. Silk J, Willoughby BE, Brown GR (2005) Maternal rank and local resource competition do not predict birth sex ratios in wild baboons. Proc R Soc B 272: 859-864.
150. Simmons LW (2005) The evolution of polyandry: sperm competition, sperm selection and offspring viability. Ann Rev Ecol Evol Syst 36: 125-146.
151. Simmons LW, Tomkins JL, Kotiaho JS, Hunt J (1999) Fluctuating paradigm. Proc R Soc B 266: 593-595.
152. Simons MJP, Verhulst S (2011) Zebra finch females prefer males with redder bills independent of song rate-a meta-analysis. Behav Ecol 22: 755-762.
153. Slatyer RA, Mautz BS, Backwell PRY, Jennions MD (2012) Estimating genetic benefits of polyandry from experimental studies: a meta-analysis. Biol Rev 87: 1-33.
154. Smith BR, Blumstein DT (2008) Fitness consequences of personality: a meta-analysis. Behav Ecol 19: 448-455.
155. Snook RR (2005) Sperm in competition: not playing by the numbers. Trends Ecol Evol 20: 46-53.
156. Sokolovska N, Rowe L, Johansson F (2000) Fitness and body size in mature odonates. Ecol Entomol 25: 239-248.
157. Soma M, Garamszegi LZ (2011) Rethinking birdsong evolution: meta-analysis of the relationship between song complexity and reproductive success. Behav Ecol 22: 363-371.
158. South A, Lewis SM (2011) The influence of male ejaculate quantity on female fitness: a meta-analysis. Biol Rev 86: 299-309.
159. Thornhill R, Møller AP (1998) The relative importance of size and asymmetry in sexual selection. Behav Ecol 9: 546-551.
160. Thornhill R, Møller AP, Gangestad SW (1999) The biological significance of fluctuating asymmetry and sexual selection: A reply to Palmer. Amer Nat 154: 234-241.
161. Torres-Vila LM, Jennions MD (2005) Male mating history and female fecundity in the Lepidoptera: do male virgins make better partners? Behav Ecol Sociobiol 57: 318-326.
162. Torres-Vila LM, Rodriguez-Molina MC, Jennions MD (2004) Polyandry and fecundity in the Lepidoptera: can methodological and conceptual approaches bias outcomes? Behav Ecol Sociobiol 55: 315-324.
163. Vanderwerf E (1992) Lack clutch size hypothesis-an examination of the evidence using meta-analysis. Ecology 73: 1699-1705.
164. Vøllestad LA, Hindar K, Møller AP (1999) A meta-analysis of fluctuating asymmetry in relation to heterozygosity. Heredity 83: 206-218.
165. Wehi PM, Nakagawa S, Trewick SA, Morgan-Richards M (2011) Does predation result in adult sex ratio skew in a sexually dimorphic insect genus? J Evol Biol 24: 2321-2328.
166. Weir LK, Grant JWA, Hutchings JA (2011) The influence of operational sex ratio on the intensity of competition for mates. Am Nat 177: 167-176.
167. West SA, Sheldon BC (2002) Constraints in the evolution of sex ratio adjustment. Science 295: 1685-1688.
168. West SA, Shuker DM, Sheldon BC (2005) Sex-ratio adjustment when relatives interact: a test of constraints on adaptation. Evolution 59: 1211-1228.
169. Westlake KP, Rowe L (1999) Developmental costs of male sexual traits in the water strider Rheumatobates rileyi. Can J Zool 77: 917-922.
170. Yasukawa K, Enstrom DA, Parker PG, Jones TC (2010) Male Red-winged Blackbirds with experimentally dulled epaulets experience no disadvantage in sexual selection. J Field Ornithol 81: 31-41.