The illegal parrot trade: a literature review

Global Crime

Volumn 13, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 176-190

  Pires, Stephen F ^a  

^a FLORIDA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

CRAVED; crime prevention; illegal wildlife trade; itinerant fences; parrot poaching

Indexed keywords

EID: 84865415013     PISSN: 17440572     EISSN: 17440580     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/17440572.2012.700180     Document Type: Review

References (158)

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2. 'Wildlife Trade: What is it?', Traffic Organization, http://www.traffic.org/trade/ (accessed January 5, 2012). The illegal fishing industry is estimated to be between $10 billion and $23 billion annually and illegal logging is estimated to be a $7 billion industry.
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4. J.C.G. Cantu et al., The Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico: A Comprehensive Assessment (Mexico and Washington, DC: Defenders of Wildlife, 2007)
5. J.A. Gonzàlez, 'Harvesting, Local Trade, and Conservation of Parrots on the Northeastern Peruvian Amazon', Biological Conservation 114 (2003): 437-46.
6. M. K. Weston and M.A. Memon, 'The Illegal Parrot Trade in Latin America and its Consequences to Parrot Nutrition, Health and Conservation', Bird Populations 9 (2009): 76-83.
7. Cantu, Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico
8. S.F. Pires and R.V. Clarke, 'Are Parrots CRAVED? An Analysis of Parrot Poaching in Mexico', Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency (2012), doi:10.1177/0022427810397950.
9. Cantu, Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico.
10. T. Juniper and M. Parr, Parrots: A Guide to Parrots of the World (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998).
11. S.N.G. Howell and S. Webb, A Guide to the Birds of Mexico and Northern Central America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
12. K. Cockle et al., 'Distribution, Abundance, and Conservation of Vinaceous Amazons (Amazona Vinacea) in Argentina and Paraguay', Journal of Field Ornithology 78, no. 1 (2007): 21-39.
13. T. Wright et al., 'Nest Poaching in Neotropical Parrots', Conservation Biology 15 (2001): 710-20.
14. Juniper and Parr, Parrots.
15. D.J. Pain et al., 'Impact of Protection on Nest Take and Nesting Success of Parrots in Africa, Asia, and Australia', Animal Conservation 9 (2006): 322-30.
16. Wright et al., 'Nest Poaching', 710-20
17. M.C. Armstrong, R.H. Farinato, and T.M. Telecky, 'A Wing and a Prayer: Birds and their Protection Under Law', Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery 15, no. 4 (2001): 310-15.
18. Cooney and Jepson (2006) have argued this correlation could be due to Mexico joining the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) in 1991, which would have increased more protection of species with a catch-quotas system. This seem unlikely though given the recent report in Mexico that up to 78,500 parrots were being over-trapped and poached even as catch-quotas were enforced (Cantu, Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico).
19. Wright A et al., 'Nest Poaching', 710-20. Nest poaching has been found to be the most common form of poaching parrots. When looking at this form of poaching, researchers found an average of 30% decline in nest poaching in Mexico.
20. Cantu, Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico.
21. M. Gastanaga et al., 'A Study of the Parrot Trade in Peru and the Potential Importance of Internal Trade for Threatened Species', Bird Conservational International 21, no. 1 (2010): 1-10.
22. Cantu, Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico
23. Gastanaga et al., 'Study of the Parrot Trade in Peru', 1-10.
24. M. Herrera and B. Hennessey, 'Quantifying the Illegal Parrot Trade in Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia, with Emphasis on Threatened Species', Bird Conservation International 17 (2007): 295-300.
25. Cantu, Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico.
26. International Union for Conservation of Nature, 'Red List of Threatened Species', http://www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/species/red_list/ (accessed September 1, 2011).
27. Wright et al., 'Nest Poaching', 710-20.
28. T. Monterrubio, E. Enkerlin-Hoeflich, and R.B. Hamilton, 'Productivity and Nesting Success of Thick-Billed Parrots', The Condor 104 (2002): 788-94.
29. Wright, et al., 'Nest Poaching', 710-20.
30. Cantu, Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico
31. Juniper and Parr, Parrots
32. Cockleet al., 'Distribution, Abundance, and Conservation of Vinaceous Amazons (Amazona Vinacea)', 21-39.
33. Juniper and Parr, Parrots.
34. Gastanagaet al., 'Study of the Parrot Trade in Peru', 1-10.
35. Cantu, Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico
36. Juniper and Parr, Parrots.
37. Cantu, Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico
38. Pires and Clarke, 'Are Parrots CRAVED?'.
39. Cantu, Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico.
40. Losses to habitat loss can be measured by quantifying the average number of eggs that are laid by parrot species in areas where deforestation has occurred compared with areas where forests are intact.
41. Juniperand Parr, Parrots.
42. Cantu, Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico.
43. R. Low, 'The Worldwide Trade in Wild-Caught Parrots', in Proceedings of the International Aviculturists Society (Memphis, TN: International Aviculturists Society, 2003).
44. Juniper and Parr, Parrots
45. Wright et al., 'Nest Poaching', 710-20.
46. Cantu, Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico
47. Juniper and Parr, Parrots
48. Cockleet al., 'Distribution, Abundance, and Conservation of Vinaceous Amazons (Amazona Vinacea)', 21-39.
49. Juniper and Parr, Parrots.
50. Gastanaga et al., 'Study of the Parrot Trade in Peru', 1-10.
51. Cantu, Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico
52. Juniper and Parr, Parrots.
53. Cantu, Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico
54. Pires and Clarke, 'Are Parrots CRAVED?'.
55. Cantu, Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico.
56. Losses to habitat loss can be measured by quantifying the average number of eggs that are laid by parrot species in areas where deforestation has occurred compared with areas where forests are intact.
57. Juniper and Parr, Parrots.
58. Cantu, Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico.
59. R. Low, 'The Worldwide Trade in Wild-Caught Parrots', in Proceedings of the International Aviculturists Society (Memphis, TN: International Aviculturists Society, 2003)
60. Juniper and Parr Parrots
61. Wrightet al., 'Nest Poaching', 710-20.
62. TRAFFIC, 'What's Driving the Wildlife Trade? A Review of Expert Opinion on Economic and Social Drivers of theWildlife Trade and Trade Control Efforts in Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR and Vietnam', East Asia and Pacific Region Sustainable Development Discussion Papers (Washington, DC: East Asia and Pacific Region Sustainable Development Department, World Bank, 2008).
63. D. Roe, Trading Nature: A Report, with Case Studies, on the Contribution of Wildlife Trade Management to Sustainable Livelihoods and theMillennium Development Goals (Cambridge: Traffic International and WWF International, 2008).
64. C. Robbins and R.T. Barcenas, Prickly Trade: Trade and Conservation of Chihuahuan Desert Cacti (Washington, DC: TRAFFIC North America, 2003).
65. J. Putt and D. Nelson, 'Crime in the Australian Fishing Industry', Trends & Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice, no. 366, 2008, http://www.aic.gov.au/publications/current%20series/tandi/361-380/tandi366.aspx (accessed October 10, 2010).
66. EJF, Pirate Fish on Your Plate - Tracking Illegally- Caught Fish fromWest Africa into the European Market (London: Environmental Justice Foundation, 2007).
67. TRAFFIC, 'What's Driving the Wildlife Trade?
68. A. Vaisman, Sturgeon Catch and Trade in the Russian Part of the Caspian Sea (Brussels: TRAFFIC Europe, 1997).
69. J. Tayler, The Caviar Thugs: Poverty, Corruption, and Crime are Threatening to Destroy a Russian Institution, Atlantic Magazine, June 2001, http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2001/06/the-caviar-thugs/2252/ (accessed October 15, 2009).
70. I. Saffron, Caviar: The Strange History and Uncertain Future of the World's Most Coveted Delicacy (New York: Broadway Books, 2002).
71. R.A. Carey, The Philosopher Fish: Sturgeon, Caviar, and the Geography of Desire (New York: Counterpoint, 2005).
72. M. Hauck and N.A. Sweijd, 'A Case Study of Abalone Poaching in South Africa and Its Impact on Fisheries Management', ICES Journal of Marine Science 56 (1999): 1024-32.
73. M. Hauck and M. Kroese, 'Fisheries Compliance in South Africa: A Decade of Challenges and Reform 1994-2004', Marine Policy 30 (2006): 74-83
74. Putt and Nelson, Crime in the Australian Fishing Industry
75. R. White, Crimes Against Nature: Environmental Criminology and Ecological Justice (Devon: Willan Publishing, 2008).
76. Cantu, Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico
77. TRAFFIC, 'What's Driving the Wildlife Trade?'.
78. J. Lin, 'Tackling Southeast Asia's Illegal Wildlife Trade', Singapore Yearbook of International Law and Contributors 9 (2005): 191-208.
79. D. Cook, M. Roberts, and J. Lowther, The International Wildlife Trade and Organized Crime: A Review of the Evidence and the Role of the UK (Wolverhampton: WWF-UK, 2002)
80. US Congress, Poaching American Security: Impacts of Illegal Wildlife Trade: Oversight Hearing Before the Committee on Natural Resources, 110th Cong., 2nd Sess.,Wednesday, March 5, 2008.
81. M. Zimmerman, 'The Black Market for Wildlife: Combating Transnational Organized Crime in the Illegal Wildlife Trade', Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law 36 (2003): 1657-89.
82. See M. McDermott, 'Wildlife Trafficking, Organized Crime and You: Without Demand from Rich Nations There's No Profit in It', http://planetgreen.discovery.com/travel-outdoors/wildlifetrafficking-organized-crime-and-you.html (accessed September 16, 2010).
83. J. Delaney, 'Wildlife Smuggling Nets Big Bucks for Organized Crime', The Epoch Times, http://www.theepochtimes.com/n2/content/view/13914/ (accessed March 18, 2009).
84. Pires and Clarke, 'Are Parrots CRAVED?
85. Pires and Clarke, 'Sequential Foraging', 314-35.
86. Dauphine, 'Live Bird Trade', 220-2
87. Gastanagaet al., 'Study of the Parrot Trade in Peru', 1-10.
88. Email communication with Hennessey, October 10, 2009.
89. Cantu, Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico.
90. A notable exception has been described in northern Peru, where the men of a particular farming village travel 8 hours by canoe in the breeding season to poach nestlings in a remote swamp (Gonza'lez, 'Harvesting, Local Trade, and Conservation of Parrots', 437-46).
91. N.J. Collar and A.T. Juniper, 'Dimensions and Causes of the Parrot Conservation Crisis', in New World Parrots in Crisis: Solutions from Conservation Biology, ed. S.R. Beissinger and N.F.R. Snyder (Washington and London: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992), 1-24
92. Monterrubio et al., 'Thick-Billed Parrots', 788-94.
93. Wright et al., 'Nest Poaching', 710-20.
94. Pires and Clarke, 'Sequential Foraging', 314-35.
95. Ibid., 316.
96. Dauphine, 'Live Bird Trade', 220-2.
97. Gonzàlez, 'Harvesting, Local Trade, and Conservation of Parrots', 437-46; and email communication with Hennessey, October 22, 2009.
98. Pires and Clarke, 'Sequential Foraging', 314-35, p. 317. Information about parrot traders was provided by David Wiedenfield of American Bird Conservancy, and Bennett Hennessey, one of the authors of the Los Pozos market study in Santa Cruz, Bolivia. In his email of August 27, 2009, Wiedenfeld stated that: 'It's really just too easy for a parrot trader (a middleman) to pay, say $2 to buy parrots from the opportunistic trappers, who are mostly extremely poor peasants. The middlemen often have known routes and schedules (i.e., they travel a certain circuit of towns and arrive on certain market days), and the local people come bring what they've caught to sell when they know he's going to be in town. From the middleman's point of view, it's very easy: (1) he can get a lot of birds; (2) doesn't have to get out and get sweaty - he can stay at the bar and drink beers as the people come by with their birds to sell; and (3) it doesn't really cost much (he can buy lots of birds for $200 or $300 dollars, which he can then sell up to the next larger middleman above him for $1000-1500, a pretty good rate of return).' Hennesey supplemented this picture in his email of October 22, 2009 with the following: 'The scenario is that indigenous families will take chicks when possible. They keep them, like they keep chickens, until a day when a middleman passes by offering to buy their pets for a certain fee.
99. Collar and Juniper, 'Parrot Conservation Crisis', 1-24.
100. Monterrubio et al., 'Thick-Billed Parrots', 788-94.
101. Cockle et al., 'Distribution, Abundance, and Conservation of Vinaceous Amazons (Amazona Vinacea)', 21-39
102. Pires and Clarke, 'Are Parrots CRAVED?
103. Pires and Clarke, 'Sequential Foraging', 314-35
104. A.M. Rodriguez Castillo and J.R. Eberhard, 'Reproductive Behavior of the Yellow-Crowned Parrot (Amazona Ochrocephala) in Western Panama', The Wilson Journal of Ornithology 118, no. 2 (2006): 225-36.
105. C. Vaughan, N. Nemeth, and L. Marineros, 'Ecology and Management of Natural and Artificial Scarlet Macaw (Ara Macao) Nest Cavities in Costa Rica', Ornitologia Neotropical 14 (2003): 1-16.
106. Cantu, Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico.
107. Gonzàlez, 'Harvesting, Local Trade, and Conservation of Parrots', 437-46.
108. Rodriguez Castillo and Eberhard, 'Reproductive Behavior of the Yellow-Crowned Parrot', 225-36
109. M. Engebretson, 'The Welfare and Suitability of Parrots as Companion Animals: A Review', Animal Welfare 15 (2006): 263-76.
110. Email communication with Wiedenfeld, March 4, 2009.
111. Low, 'The Worldwide Trade
112. Gonzàlez, 'Harvesting, Local Trade, and Conservation of Parrots', 437-46
113. Juniperand Parr, Parrots
114. Cockleet al., 'Distribution, Abundance, and Conservation of Vinaceous Amazons (Amazona Vinacea)', 21-39
115. Painet al., 'Impact of Protection on Nest Take and Nesting Success of Parrots', 322-30
116. Rodriguez Castillo and Eberhard, 'Reproductive Behavior of the Yellow-Crowned Parrot', 225-36
117. Dauphine, 'Live Bird Trade', 220-2
118. Wright et al., 'Nest Poaching', 710-20.
119. Professional trappers buy 'mist nets' made in Indonesia for about $70, which they set in trees, or they might tie a parrot to a branch to attract other parrots into a net (email comm., Cantu, August 19, 2009).
120. Cantu, Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico.
121. Nets are used in Africa to capture wild parrots while eating or drinking (May and Hovetter, 2002, cited in Engebretson, 'Welfare and Suitability of Parrots as Companion Animals', 263-76) and are also used at tree cavity entrances in Argentina (Bucher et al.,1992 cited in Engebretson, 'Welfare and Suitability of Parrots as Companion Animals', 263-76), but there is no evidence of these practices in Mexico.
122. Email communication with, Wiedenfeld, August 27, 2009
123. Gilardi, August 19, 2009
124. Salinas, August 20, 2009.
125. Herrera and Hennessey, 'Quantifying the Illegal Parrot Trade', 295-300; email comm., Gilardi, August 19, 2009; Cantu, August 19, 2009.
126. Wright et al., 'Nest Poaching', 710-20.
127. Pain et al., 'Impact of Protection on Nest Take and Nesting Success of Parrots', 22-30.
128. Mist nets are a lightweight net that is used to capture birds.
129. Herrera and Hennessey, 'Monitoring Results of the Illegal Parrot Trade', 232-4.
130. Cantu, Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico.
131. This is compared to the Scarlet Macaw, the most expensive species sold in Mexico, which sells for an average of (US) $564 (Cantu, Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico).
132. Dauphine, 'Live Bird Trade', 220-2.
133. Herrera and Hennessey, 'Quantifying the Illegal Parrot Trade', 295-300.
134. Cantu, Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico.
135. The Blue-Winged Parrotlet is one of the smallest species measuring 12 cm.
136. The Scarlet Macaw is known to live up to 70 years in captivity, sometimes outliving its human owner.
137. Juniper and Parr, Parrots.
138. M. Herrera, and B. Hennessey, 'Quantifying the Illegal Parrot Trade in Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia, with Emphasis on Threatened Species', Bird Conservation International 17 (2007): 295-300.
139. Cantu, Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico.
140. Herrera and Hennessey, 'Quantifying the Illegal Parrot Trade', 295-300.
141. Gastanaga et al., 'Study of the Parrot Trade in Peru', 1-10.
142. Cantu, Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico
143. Juniper and Parr, Parrots.
144. Cantu, Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico.
145. The 2009 estimated GDP per capita for Mexico is (US) $13,200, $4700 in Bolivia, and $8500 in Peru. Relative to the US ($46,000) [CIA, The World Factbook, http://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html (accessed September 22, 2010)], one can see that the average person in neo-tropical countries would not be able to afford captive-bred parrots in comparison to wild-caught parrots.
146. Moreover, breeding facilities in the neo-tropics are quite rare (Cantu, Illegal Parrot Trade in Mexico).
147. Herrera and Hennessey 'Quantifying the Illegal Parrot Trade', 295-300.
148. Gastanaga et al., 'Study of the Parrot Trade in Peru', 1-10.
149. Pires and Clarke, 'Sequential Foraging', 314-35.
150. R.V. Clarke, Hot Products: Understanding, Anticipating and Reducing Demand for Stolen Goods, Police Research Series, Paper 112. Policing and Reducing Crime Unit, Research Development and Statistics Directorate (London: Home Office, 1999).
151. Pires and Clarke, 'Are Parrots CRAVED?
152. Pires and Clarke, 'Sequential Foraging', 314-35.
153. Species that are 400 miles away from the Santa Cruz market, for instance, would be less likely to appear on this particular market because the distance to bring species that far would be too costly for any middleman. Thus, species within a much closer proximity should be more likely to appear on this illegal market. This became a refined method of operationalizing availability.
154. Price data were not available for parrot species sold in a Santa Cruz market in Bolivia at the time.
155. Pires and Clarke, 'Sequential Foraging', 314-35. Because so many villagers may be involved in parrot poaching, mass arrests would only increase distrust between communities and police.
156. Pires and Clarke, 'Are Parrots CRAVED?
157. Pires and Clarke 'Sequential Foraging', 314-35.
158. S.F. Pires and W. Moreto, 'Preventing Wildlife Crimes: Solutions that Can Overcome the "Tragedy of the Commons"', European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research 17 (2011): 101-23.