The ecology, geopolitics, and economics of managing Lymantria dispar in the United States

International Journal of Pest Management

Volumn 58, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 195-210

  Tobin, Patrick C ^a   Bai, Barry B ^b   Eggen, Donald A ^c   Leonard, Donna S ^d  

^a NORTHERN RESEARCH STATION   (United States)

^b Oregon Department of Agriculture   (United States)

^c Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources   (United States)

^d U S DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE   (United States)

Author keywords

barrier zone management; biological invasions; eradication; gypsy moth; invasive species management; Lymantria dispar; outbreak suppression; quarantine

Indexed keywords

BIOLOGICAL INVASION; ECONOMICS; GEOPOLITICS; INVASIVE SPECIES; MOTH; PEST CONTROL; PEST OUTBREAK; QUARANTINE;

UNITED STATES;

EID: 84865013881     PISSN: 09670874     EISSN: 13665863     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09670874.2011.647836     Document Type: Article

References (129)

1. Allee, WC. 1938. "The social life of animals". New York, NY: WW Norton and Company, Inc.
2. Allen, VT, Miller, OF and Tyler, WB. 1991. Gypsy moth caterpillar dermatitis - revisited. J Amer Acad Dermatol, 24: 979-981.
3. Andow, DA, Kareiva, PM, Levin, SA and Okubo, A. 1990. Spread of invading organisms. Landsc Ecol, 4: 177-188.
4. Aukema, JE, McCullough, DG, Von Holle, B, Liebhold, AM, Britton, K and Frankel, SJ. 2010. Historical accumulation of nonindigenous forest pests in the continental US. Bioscience, 60: 886-897.
5. Beroza, M and Knipling, EF. 1972. Gypsy moth control with the sex attractant pheromone. Science, 177: 19-27.
6. Bierl, BA, Beroza, M and Collier, CW. 1970. Potent sex attractant of the gypsy moth: its isolation, identification and synthesis. Science, 170: 87-89.
7. Bigsby, KM, Tobin, PC and Sills, EO. 2011. Anthropogenic drivers of gypsy moth spread. Biol Inv, 13: 2077-2090.
8. Blacksten, R, Herzer, I and Kessler, C. 1978. "A cost/benefit analysis for gypsy moth containment". 161-178. Arlington, VA: United States Department of Agriculture. Report KFR
9. Boettner, GH, Elkinton, JS and Boettner, CJ. 2000. Effects of a biological control introduction on three nontarget native species of saturniid moths. Conserv Biol, 14: 1798-1806.
10. Bogdanowicz, SM, Mastro, VC, Prasher, DC and Harrison, RG. 1997. Microsatellite DNA variation among Asian and North American gypsy moths (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae). Ann Entomol Soc Am, 90: 768-775.
11. Brockerhoff, EG, Bain, J, Kimberley, M and Knížek, M. 2006. Interception frequency of exotic bark and ambrosia beetles (Coleoptera: Scolytinae) and relationship with establishment in New Zealand and worldwide. Can J For Res, 36: 289-298.
12. Burgess, AF. 1917. "Suppression of the gipsy [sic] and brown-tail moths and its value to states not infested". Washington, DC: Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture for the Year 1916.
13. Burgess, AF. 1930. "The gipsy [sic] moth and the brown-tail moth". 1623Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture Farmer's Bulletin.
14. Burgess, AF and Crossman, SS. 1929. "Imported insect enemies of the gypsy moth and the brown-tail moth". 86Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture Technical Bulletin.
15. Campbell, RW and Sloan, RJ. 1977. Natural regulation of innocuous gypsy moth populations. Environ Entomol, 6: 315-322.
16. Carlton, JT. 1987. Patterns of transoceanic marine biological invasions in the Pacific Ocean. B Mar Sci, 41: 452-565.
17. Contarini, M, Onufrieva, KS, Thorpe, KW, Raffa, KF and Tobin, PC. 2009. Mate-finding failure as an important cause of Allee effects along the leading edge of an invading insect population. Entomol Exp Appl, 133: 307-314.
18. Crosby, AW. 1986. "Ecological imperialism: the biological expansion of Europe". 900-1900. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
19. Dahlsten, DL and Garcia, R. 1989. "Eradication of exotic pests: analysis with case histories". New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
20. Dehnen-Schmutz, K, Touza, J, Perrings, C and Williamson, M. 2007. A century of the ornamental plant trade and its impact on invasion success. Divers Distrib, 13: 527-534.
21. di Castri, F. 1989. "History of biological invasions with special emphasis on the old world". In Biological invasions: a global perspective, Edited by: Drake, JA, Mooney, HA, di Castri, F, Groves, RH, Kruger, FJ, Rejmánek, M and Williamson, M. 1-30. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons, Ltd.
22. Doane, CC and McManus, ML. 1981. "The gypsy moth: research toward integrated pest management". 1584Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture Technical Bulletin.
23. Drake, JA and Lodge, DM. 2004. Global hotspots of biological invasions: evaluating options for ballast-water management. Proc R Soc Biol Sci Ser B, 271: 575-580.
24. Dreistadt, SH. 1983. An assessment of gypsy moth eradication attempts in Michigan (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae). Gr Lakes Entomol, 16: 143-148.
25. Dwyer, G, Dushoff, J and Yee, SH. 2004. The combined effects of pathogens and predators on insect outbreaks. Nature, 430: 341-345.
26. Dwyer, G and Elkinton, JS. 1993. Using simple models to predict virus epizootics in gypsy moth populations. J Anim Ecol, 62: 1-11.
27. Dwyer, G and Elkinton, JS. 1995. Host dispersal and the spatial spread of insect pathogens. Ecology, 76: 1262-1275.
28. Elkinton, JS and Cardé, RT. 1980. Distribution, dispersal, and apparent survival of male gypsy moths as determined by capture in pheromone baited traps. Environ Entomol, 9: 729-737.
29. Elkinton, JS and Cardé, RT. 1988. Effects of intertrap distance and wind direction on the interaction of gypsy moth (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) pheromone-baited traps. Environ Entomol, 17: 764-769.
30. Elkinton, JS and Childs, RD. 1983. Efficiency of two gypsy moth (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) pheromone-baited traps. Environ Entomol, 12: 1519-1525.
31. Elkinton, JS, Healy, WM, Buonaccorsi, JP, Boettner, GH, Hazzard, AM, Smith, HR and Liebhold, AM. 1996. Interactions among gypsy moths, white-footed mice, and acorns. Ecology, 77: 2332-2342.
32. Elkinton, JS and Liebhold, AM. 1990. Population dynamics of gypsy moth in North America. Annu Rev Entomol, 35: 571-596.
33. Forbush, EH and Fernald, CH. 1896. "The gypsy moth". Boston, MA: Wright and Potter.
34. Gansner, DA and Herrick, OW. 1984. Guides for estimating forest stand losses to gypsy moth. North J Appl For, 1: 21-23.
35. Gilbert, M, Grégoire, J-C, Freise, JF and Heitland, W. 2004. Long-distance dispersal and human population density allow the prediction of invasive patterns in the horse chestnut leafminer Cameraria ohridella. J Anim Ecol, 73: 459-468.
36. Gray, RH, Lorimer, CG, Tobin, PC and Raffa, KF. 2008. Preoutbreak dynamics of a recently established invasive herbivore: roles of natural enemies and habitat structure in stage-specific performance of gypsy moth (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) populations in northeastern Wisconsin. Environ Entomol, 37: 1174-1184.
37. Gypsy Moth Slow-the-Spread Foundation, Inc. [Internet] 2011. "Gypsy moth slow-the-spread program [cited 2011 Nov 4]". Available from: http://www.gmsts.org/
38. Haack, RA, Law, KR, Mastro, VC, Ossenburgen, HS and Raimo, BJ. 1997. New York's battle with the Asian long-horned beetle. J For, 95: 11-15.
39. Hajek, AE. 1999. Pathology and epizootiology of the Lepidoptera-specific mycopathogen Entomophaga maimaiga. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev, 63: 814-835.
40. Hajek, AE, Carruthers, RI and Soper, RS. 1990. Temperature and moisture relations of sporulation and germination by Entomophaga maimaiga (Zygomycetes: Entomophthoraceae), a fungal pathogen of Lymantria dispar (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae). Environ Entomol, 19: 85-90.
41. Hajek, AE, Humber, RA and Elkinton, JS. 1995. The mysterious origin of Entomophaga maimaiga in North America. Amer Entomol, 41: 31-42.
42. Hajek, AE and Tobin, PC. 2009. "North American eradications of Asian and European gypsy moth". In Use of microbes for control and eradication of invasive arthropods, Edited by: Hajek, AE, Glare, TR and O'Callaghan, M. 71-89. New York, NY: Springer.
43. Hajek, AE and Tobin, PC. 2010. Micro-managing arthropod invasions: eradication and control of invasive arthropods with microbes. Biol Invasions, 12: 2895-2912.
44. Haynes, KJ, Liebhold, AM and Johnson, DM. 2009. Spatial analysis of harmonic oscillation of gypsy moth outbreak intensity. Oecologia, 159: 249-256.
45. Hengeveld, R. 1989. "Dynamics of biological invasions". London, UK: Chapman and Hall.
46. Herms, DA. 2002. "Strategies for deployment of insect resistant ornamental plants". In Mechanisms and deployment of resistance in trees to insects, Edited by: Wagner, MR, Clancy, KM, Lieutier, F and Paine, TD. 217-235. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishing.
47. Herrick, OW. 1981. Forest pest management economics-application to the gypsy moth. For Sci, 27: 128-138.
48. Herrick, OW and Gansner, DA. 1987. "Mortality risks for forest trees threatened with gypsy moth infestation". Upper Darby, PA: United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service Research Note NE-338.
49. Howard, LO and Fiske, WF. 1911. "The importation into the United States of the parasites of the gypsy moth and the browntail moth". 1911Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture Entomological Bulletin.
50. Hulme, PE, Bacher, S, Kenis, M, Klotz, S, Kühn, I, Minchin, D, Nentwig, W, Olenin, S, Panov, VPergl, J. 2008. Grasping at the routes of biological invasions: a framework for integrating pathways into policy. J Appl Ecol, 45: 403-414.
51. Johnson, DM, Liebhold, AM and Bjørnstad, ON. 2006a. Geographical variation in the periodicity of gypsy moth outbreaks. Ecography, 29: 367-374.
52. Johnson, DM, Liebhold, AM, Bjørnstad, ON and McManus, ML. 2005. Circumpolar variation in periodicity and synchrony among gypsy moth populations. J Anim Ecol, 74: 882-892.
53. Johnson, DM, Liebhold, AM, Tobin, PC and Bjørnstad, ON. 2006b. Allee effects and pulsed invasion of the gypsy moth. Nature, 444: 361-363.
54. Kean, JM, Tobin, PC, Lee, DC, Stringer, LD, Flores Vargas, R, McCullough, DG, Herms, DA, Suckling, DM, Yamanaka, TPluess, T. 2011. "GERDA: Global eradication and response database". [Internet] [cited 2011 Nov 4]. Available from:http://b3.net.nz/gerda/index.php
55. Keena, MA, Côté, M-J, Grinberg, PS and Wallner, WE. 2008. World distribution of female flight and genetic variation in Lymantria dispar (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae). Environ Entomol, 37: 636-649.
56. Kiple, KF and Ornelas, KC. 2000. "The Cambridge world history of food". Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
57. Leuschner, WA, Young, JA, Waldon, SA and Ravlin, FW. 1996. Potential benefits of slowing the gypsy moth's spread. South J Appl For, 20: 65-73.
58. Levine, JM and D'Antonio, CM. 2003. Forecasting biological invasions with increasing international trade. Conserv Biol, 17: 322-326.
59. Liebhold, A, Mastro, V and Schaefer, PW. 1989. Learning from the legacy of Leopold Trouvelot. Bull Entomol Soc Am, 35: 20-22.
60. Liebhold, A, Thorpe, K, Ghent, J and Lyons, DB. 1994. "Gypsy moth egg mass sampling for decision-making: a users' guide". Radnor, PA: United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, NA-TP-04-94.
61. Liebhold, AM and Bascompte, J. 2003. The Allee effect, stochastic dynamics and the eradication of alien species. Ecol Lett, 6: 133-140.
62. Liebhold, AM, Gottschalk, KW, Muzika, RM, Montgomery, ME, Young, R, O'Day, K and Kelley, B. 1995. "Suitability of North American tree species to the gypsy moth: a summary of field and laboratory tests". Radnor, PA: United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service General Technical Report NE-211.
63. Liebhold, AM, Halverson, JA and Elmes, GA. 1992. Gypsy moth invasion in North America: a quantitative analysis. J Biogeogr, 19: 513-520.
64. Liebhold, AM and McManus, ML. 1991. Does larval dispersal cause the expansion of gypsy moth outbreaks?. North J Appl For, 8: 95-98.
65. Liebhold, AM, Simons, EE, Sior, A and Unger, JD. 1993. Forecasting defoliation caused by the gypsy moth from field measurements. Environ Entomol, 22: 26-32.
66. Liebhold, AM and Tobin, PC. 2006. Growth of newly established alien populations: comparison of North American gypsy moth colonies with invasion theory. Popul Ecol, 48: 253-262.
67. Liebhold, AM and Tobin, PC. 2008. Population ecology of insect invasions and their management. Annu Rev Entomol, 53: 387-408.
68. Lippitt, CD, Rogan, J, Toledano, J, Sangermano, F, Eastman, JR, Mastro, V and Sawyer, AJ. 2008. Incorporating anthropogenic variables into a species distribution model to map gypsy moth risk. Ecol Model, 210: 339-350.
69. Lockwood, JL, Hoopes, M and Marchetti, M. 2007. "Invasion ecology". Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
70. Mack, RN, Simberloff, D, Lonsdale, WM, Evans, H, Clout, M and Bazzaz, FA. 2000. Biotic invasions: causes, epidemiology, global consequences, and control. Ecol Appl, 10: 689-710.
71. Mastro, VC, Richerson, JV and Cameron, EA. 1977. An evaluation of gypsy moth pheromone-baited traps using behavioral observations as a measure of trap efficiency. Environ Entomol, 6: 128-132.
72. McCullough, DG, Work, TT, Cavey, JF, Liebhold, AM and Marshall, D. 2006. Interceptions of nonindigenous plant pests at US ports of entry and border crossings over a 17-year period. Biol Invasions, 8: 611-630.
73. McFadden, MW and McManus, ME. 1991. "An insect out of control? The potential for spread and establishment of the gypsy moth in new forest areas in the United States". In Forest insect guilds: patterns of interaction with host trees, Edited by: Baranchikov, YN, Mattson, WJ, Hain, FP and Payne, T. 172-186. Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service General Technical Report NE-153.
74. McManus, ML. 1978. Expanded gypsy moth research and development program. J For, 76: 144-149.
75. McManus, ML. 2007. "In the beginning: gypsy moth in the United States". In Slow the Spread: a national program to manage the gypsy moth, Edited by: Tobin, PC and Blackburn, LM. 3-14. Newtown Square, PA: United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service General Technical Report NRS-06.
76. Morin, RS, Liebhold, AM, Luzader, ER, Lister, AJ, Gottschalk, KW and Twardus, DB. 2005. "Mapping host-species abundance of three major exotic forest pests". Newtown Square, PA: United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service Research Paper NE-726.
77. National Agricultural Pest Information System. 2011. "Purdue University. Survey Status of Gypsy Moth (European) - Lymantria dispar". [Internet] [cited 2011 Nov 30]. Available from: http://pest.ceris.purdue.edu/map.php?code=ITAXAIA&year=3year
78. Odell, TM and Mastro, VC. 1980. Crepuscular activity of gypsy moth adults (Lymantria dispar). Environ Entomol, 9: 613-617.
79. Okubo, A. 1980. "Diffusion and ecological problems: mathematical models". Berlin: Springer.
80. Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. 2009. "Pennsylvania cooperative gypsy moth suppression program, cooperator participation manual". [Internet] [cited 2011 Nov 4]. Available from:http://www.dcnr.state.pa.us/forestry/gypsymoth/Cooperator_Participation_Manual.pdf
81. Perry, CC. 1955. "Gypsy moth appraisal program and proposed plan to prevent spread of the moths". 1124Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture Technical Bulletin.
82. Poland, TM and McCullough, DG. 2006. Emerald ash borer: invasion of the urban forest and the threat to North America's ash resource. J For, 104: 118-124.
83. Popham, WLH and David, G. 1958. Insect eradication programs. Annu Rev Entomol, 3: 335-354.
84. Reardon, R, Dubois, N and McLane, W. 1994. "Bacillus thuringiensis for managing gypsy moth: a review". Radnor, PA: United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, FHM-NC-01-94.
85. Reardon, RC, Podgwaite, J and Zerillo, R. 1996. "Gypchek-the gypsy moth nucleopolyhedrosis virus product". Radnor, PA: United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, FHTET-96-16.
86. Redman, AM and Scriber, JM. 2000. Competition between the gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar, and the northern tiger swallowtail, Papilio canadensis: interactions mediated by host plant chemistry, pathogens, and parasitoids. Oecologia, 125: 218-228.
87. Reichard, SH and White, P. 2001. Horticulture as a pathway of invasive plant introductions in the United States. Bioscience, 51: 103-113.
88. Rejmánek, M and Pitcairn, MJ. 2002. "When is eradication of exotic pest plants a realistic goal?". In Turning the tide: the eradication of invasive species, Edited by: Veitch, CR and Clout, MN. 94-98. Gland (Switzerland) and Cambridge, UK: IUCN.
89. Roberts, EA, Tobin, PC and Wu, J. 2011. "Decision-support system for the gypsy moth slow-the-spread program". [Internet] [cited 11 Nov 4]. Available from:http://da.ento.vt.edu/
90. Robinet, C, Lance, DR, Thorpe, KW, Tcheslavskaia, KS, Tobin, PC and Liebhold, AM. 2008. Dispersion in time and space affect mating success and Allee effects in invading gypsy moth populations. J Anim Ecol, 77: 966-973.
91. Sakai, AK, Allendorf, FW, Holt, JS, Lodge, DM, Molofsky, J, With, KA, Baughman, S, Cabin, RJ, Cohen, JEEllstrand, NC. 2001. The population biology of invasive species. Annu Rev Ecol Syst, 32: 305-332.
92. Sharov, A, Leonard, D, Liebhold, A, Roberts, A and Dickerson, W. 2002a. "Slow the spread": a national program to contain the gypsy moth. J For, 100: 30-36.
93. Sharov, AA, Leonard, D, Liebhold, AM and Clemens, NS. 2002b. Evaluation of preventive treatments in low-density gypsy moth populations. J Econ Entomol, 95: 1205-1215.
94. Sharov, AA and Liebhold, AM. 1998a. Bioeconomics of managing the spread of exotic pest species with barrier zones. Ecol Appl, 8: 833-845.
95. Sharov, AA and Liebhold, AM. 1998b. Model of slowing the spread of gypsy moth (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) with a barrier zone. Ecol Appl, 8: 1170-1179.
96. Sharov, AA, Liebhold, AM and Ravlin, FW. 1995. Prediction of gypsy moth (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) mating success from pheromone trap counts. Environ Entomol, 24: 1239-1244.
97. Sharov, AA, Liebhold, AM and Roberts, EA. 1997. Methods for monitoring the spread of gypsy moth (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) populations in the Appalachian Mountains. J Econ Entomol, 90: 1259-1266.
98. Shigesada, N and Kawasaki, K. 1997. "Biological invasions: theory and practice". New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
99. Siegert, NW, McCullough, DG, Venette, RC, Hajek, AE and Andresen, JA. 2009. Assessing the climatic potential for epizootics of the gypsy moth fungal pathogen Entomophaga maimaiga in the North Central United States. Can J For Res, 39: 1958-1970.
100. Sills, EO. 2007. "Assessment of the economic feasibility of the gypsy moth Slow the Spread project". Raleigh, NC: North Carolina State University.
101. Simberloff, D and Gibbons, L. 2004. Now you see them, now you don't! - Population crashes of established introduced species. Biol Invasions, 6: 161-172.
102. Skinner, M, Parker, BL, Wallner, WE, Odell, TM, Howard, D and Aleong, J. 1993. Parasitoids in low-level populations of Lymantria dispar (Lep, Lymantriidae) in different forest physiographic zones. Entomophaga, 38: 15-29.
103. Solter, LF and Hajek, AE. 2009. "Control of gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar, in North America since 1878". In Use of microbes for control and eradication of invasive arthropods, Edited by: Hajek, AE, Glare, TR and O'Callaghan, M. 181-212. New York, NY: Springer.
104. Stephens, PA, Sutherland, WJ and Freckleton, RP. 1999. What is the Allee effect?. Oikos, 87: 185-190.
105. Strong, DR and Pemberton, RW. 2000. Biological control of invading species: risk and reform. Science, 288: 1969-1970.
106. Suarez, AV, Holway, DA and Case, TJ. 2001. Patterns of spread in biological invasions dominated by long-distance jump dispersal: Insights from Argentine ants. Proc National Acad Sci USA, 98: 1095-1100.
107. Suckling, DM and Brockerhoff, EG. 2010. Invasion biology, ecology, and management of the light brown apple moth (Tortricidae). Annu Rev Entomol, 55: 285-306.
108. Taylor, CM and Hastings, A. 2005. Allee effects in biological invasions. Ecol Lett, 8: 895-908.
109. Tcheslavskaia, K, Brewster, CC and Sharov, AA. 2002. Mating success of gypsy moth (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) females in southern Wisconsin. Gr Lakes Entomol, 35: 1-8.
110. Thorpe, K, Reardon, R, Tcheslavskaia, K, Leonard, D and Mastro, V. 2006. "A review of the use of mating disruption to manage gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar (L.)". Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service FHTET-2006-13.
111. Thorpe, KW, Ridgway, RL and Leonhardt, BA. 1993. Relationship between gypsy moth (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) pheromone trap catch and population density: comparison of traps baited with 1 and 500 μg (+)-disparlure lures. J Econ Entomol, 86: 86-92.
112. Thurber, DK, McClain, WR and Whitmore, RC. 1994. Indirect effects of gypsy-moth defoliation on nest predation. J Wildl Manag, 58: 493-500.
113. Tobin, PC, Berec, L and Liebhold, AM. 2011. Exploiting Allee effects for managing biological invasions. Ecol Lett, 14: 615-624.
114. Tobin, PC and Blackburn, LM. 2007. "Slow the spread: a national program to manage the gypsy moth". Newtown Square, PA: United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service General Technical Report NRS-6.
115. Tobin, PC, Liebhold, AM and Roberts, EA. 2007a. Comparison of methods for estimating the spread of a non-indigenous species. J Biogeogr, 34: 305-312.
116. Tobin, PC, Robinet, C, Johnson, DM, Whitmire, SL, Bjørnstad, ON and Liebhold, AM. 2009. The role of Allee effects in gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar (L.), invasions. Popul Ecol, 51: 373-384.
117. Tobin, PC, Sharov, AA, Liebhold, AM, Leonard, DS, Roberts, EA and Learn, MR. 2004. Management of the gypsy moth through a decision algorithm under the Slow-the-Spread project. Am Entomol, 50: 200-209.
118. Tobin, PC, Whitmire, SL, Johnson, DM, Bjørnstad, ON and Liebhold, AM. 2007b. Invasion speed is affected by geographic variation in the strength of Allee effects. Ecol Lett, 10: 36-43.
119. Tuthill, RW, Canada, AT, Wilcock, K, Etkind, PH, O'Dell, TM and Shama, SK. 1984. An epidemiologic study of gypsy moth rash. Am J Public Health, 74: 799-803.
120. United States Department of Agriculture. 1995. "Gypsy moth management in the United States: a cooperative approach. Final environmental impact statement". Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture.
121. United States Department of Agriculture. 2009. "Gypsy Moth Program Manual". Washington, DC: USDA Marketing and Regulatory Programs, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Plant Protection and Quarantine, 09/2009-2003.
122. USDA Forest Service. 2011a. "Gypsy Moth Digest-Eradication". [Internet] [cited 2011 Nov 4]. Available from:http://na.fs.fed.us/fhp/gm/eradication/index.shtml
123. USDA Forest Service. 2011b. "Gypsy Moth Digest". [Internet] [cited 2011 Nov 4]. Available from:http://na.fs.fed.us/fhp/gm/
124. Wagner, DL, Peacock, JW, Carter, JL and Talley, SE. 1996. Field assessment of Bacillus thuringiensis on nontarget Lepidoptera. Environ Entomol, 25: 1444-1454.
125. Whitmire, SL and Tobin, PC. 2006. Persistence of invading gypsy moth populations in the United States. Oecologia, 147: 230-237.
126. Williams, DW, Fuester, RW, Metterhouse, WW, Balaam, RJ, Bullock, RH and Chianese, RJ. 1991. Oak defoliation and population density relationships for the gypsy moth. J Econ Entomol, 84: 1508-1514.
127. Williamson, M and Fitter, A. 1996. The varying success of invaders. Ecology, 77: 1661-1666.
128. Work, TT, McCullough, DG, Cavey, JF and Komsa, R. 2005. Arrival rate of nonindigenous insect species into the United States through foreign trade. Biol Invasions, 7: 323-332.
129. Yan, Z, Sun, J, Don, O and Zhang, Z. 2005. The red turpentine beetle, Dendroctonus valens LeConte (Scolytidae): an exotic invasive pest of pine in China. Biodivers Conserv, 14: 1735-1760.