The Voluntary Sector's War on Poverty

Journal of Policy History

Volumn 16, Issue 4, 2004, Pages 275-305

  Morris, Andrew ^a  

^a UNION COLLEGE   (United States)

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EID: 84864737416     PISSN: 08980306     EISSN: 15284190     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jph.2004.0023     Document Type: Article

References (117)

1. Ellen Manser, Project ENABLE: What Happened (New York: Family Service Association of America, [1968]), i.
2. Elizabeth Wickenden, “Purchase of Care and Services: Effect on Voluntary Agencies,” in Iris Winogrond, ed. Purchase of Care and Services in the Health and Welfare Fields (Milwaukee: School of Social Welfare, University of Wisconsin, 1970)
3. Lester Salamon, Partners in Public Service: Government-Nonprofit Relations in the Modern Welfare State (Baltimore, 1995), has emphasized the intermingling of the nonprofit and public sector.
4. See also Ralph Kramer, Voluntary Agencies in the Welfare State (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1981).
5. Michael Lipsky and Steven Rathgeb Smith, Nonprofits for Hire: The Welfare State in the Age of Contracting (Cambridge, Mass. 1993), address some of the issues raised by public contracting by voluntary agencies generally, and
6. Michael B. Fabricant and Robert Fisher, Settlement Houses Under Siege: The Struggle to Sustain Community Organizations in New York City (New York, 2002), examine the impact of contracting on one particular set of social agencies since 1975.
7. Donald T. Critchlow and Charles H. Parker, in Critchlow and Parker, With Us Always: A History of Private Charity and Public Welfare (Lanham, Md. 1998), 7.
8. On pre—New Deal voluntarism, useful starting points are Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, Mass. 1992)
9. David T. Beito, From Mutual Aid to the Welfare State: Fraternal Societies and Social Services, 1890—1967 (Chapel Hill, 2000)
10. Linda Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare (Cambridge, Mass. 1994).
11. Judith Trolander shows how one set of voluntary institutions co-evolved with an expanding welfare state in Professionalism and Social Change: From the Settlement House Movement to Neighborhood Centers, 1886 to Present (New York, 1987), and
12. Ken Cmiel, A Home of Another Kind: One Chicago Orphanage and the Tangle of Child Welfare (Chicago, 1995), is a case study of one particular voluntary institution over the course of twentieth-century public-policy shifts. A recent wave of scholarship has addressed the “mixed” post—New Deal welfare state in other policy arenas, notably pensions and health insurance;
13. see Jacob Hacker, The Divided Welfare State: The Battle over Public and Private Social Benefits in the United States (Cambridge, 2002), and
14. Jennifer Klein, For All These Rights: Business, Labor, and the Shaping of America's Public-Private Welfare State (Princeton, 2003).
15. Standard works on the limits of the War on Poverty are Patrick Moynihan, Maximum Feasible Misunderstanding: Community Action in the War on Poverty (New York, 1969)
16. Henry Aaron, Politics and the Professors: The Great Society in Perspective (Washington, D.C. 1978), and
17. Allen Matusow, The Unraveling of America: A History of Liberalism in the 1960s (New York, 1985).
18. Recent explorations of the impact of the Great Society on local politics include Kent Germany, “Making a New Louisiana: American Liberalism and the Search for the Great Society in New Orleans, 1964-1974” (Ph.D. diss. Tulane University, 2000)
19. William Clayson, “‘The Barrios and the Ghettos Have Organized!’ Community Action, Political Acrimony, and the War on Poverty in San Antonio,” Journal of Urban History (January 2002): 158–83;
20. Lisa Hazirjian, “From Intimidation to Mobilization: The Impact of Neighborhood Organizing among Working-Class African Americans in Rocky Mount, North Carolina,” presented at the Southern Historical Association annual meeting, Fort Worth, Texas, November 1999.
21. Important exceptions are Alice O’Connor, “Neither Charity Nor Relief: The War on Poverty and the Effort to Redefine the Basis of Social Provision,”
22. Donald Critchlow, “Implementing Family Planning Policy: Philanthropic Foundations and the Welfare State,” in Critchlow and Parker, With Us Always; and Trolander, Professionalism and Social Change.
23. Richard Cloward, “Social Class and Private Social Agencies,” in Education for Social Work: Proceedings of the Annual Program of the Council on Social Work Education, 1963 (New York, 1963), 128-34.
24. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, National Social Welfare Assembly, and U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Salaries and Working Conditions of Social Welfare Manpower in 1960 (New York, 1960), 35-36;
25. William McCurdy, Characteristics of the Professional Staff of Family Service Agencies (New York, 1960), 2;
26. “Facts About Manpower in Family Service,” 2 March 1964, Folder 38, Box 17, Family Service Association of America Records, Social Welfare History Archive, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis;
27. on social work education, see Ernest Hollis and Alice Taylor, Social Work Education in the United States (New York, 1951)
28. on early professional social work, see Roy Lubove, The Professional Altruist: The Emergence of Social Work as a Career, 1880—1930 (New York, 1973).
29. The history of the Charity Organization Societies has been treated extensively; for starting points, see Frank Dekker Watson, The Charity Organization Movement in the United States (New York, 1922), and
30. Michael Katz, In the Shadow of the Poorhouse: A Social History of Welfare in America (New York, 1996), 60-87.
31. For the connection between the Charity Organization Society movement and the family service agencies, see Margaret Rich, A Belief in People: A History of Family Social Work (New York, 1956).
32. Josephine C. Brown, Public Relief: 1929-1939 (New York, 1940), 186.
33. For the reaction of these voluntary agencies to the expansion of public welfare in the 1930s and beyond, see Andrew Morris, “Charity, Therapy, and Poverty: Private Social Service in the Era of Public Welfare” (Ph.D. University of Virginia, 2003).
34. Dorothy Brown and Elizabeth McKeown, The Poor Belong to Us: Catholic Charities and American Welfare (Cambridge, Mass. 1997), 155-56.
35. For an examination of legal challenges to the subsidy of sectarian child-care institutions in New York in the 1970s, see Nina Bernstein, The Lost Children of Wilder: The Epic Struggle to Change Foster Care (New York, 2001).
36. Edward Berkowitz, Mr. Social Security: The Life of Wilbur J. Cohen (Lawrence, Kan. 1995), 191-98;
37. Gareth Davies, From Opportunity to Entitlement: The Transformation and Decline of Great Society Liberalism (Lawrence, Kan. 1995), 41-42;
38. Alice O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge: Social Science, Social Policy, and the Poor in Twentieth-Century U.S. History (Princeton, 2001), 158–65;
39. Frank Mankewicz, quoted in Michael Gillette, Launching the War on Poverty (New York, 1996), 151.
40. Matusow, The Unraveling of America, 109–19;
41. James T. Patterson, America's Struggle Against Poverty, 1900-1985 (Cambridge, Mass. 1986), 138-41;
42. Kravitz quoted in Matusow, The Unraveling of America, 111.
43. “Fund Waste Laid to Health Units,” New York Times, 23 May 1961, 43;
44. “Charities Scored on Fiscal Report,” New York Times, 31 July 1961, 1;
45. “U.S. Curbs Urged on Charity Funds,” New York Times, 11 October 1961, 32;
46. “Family Agencies Chided on Funds,” New York Times, 15 November 1961, 36;
47. Robert H. Hamlin, Voluntary Health and Welfare Agencies in the United States: An Exploratory Study (New York, 1961)
48. FSAA, Board of Directors Minutes, 12 November 1961, Folder 3, Box 5, FSAA.
49. Linton Swift, New Alignments Between Public and Private Agencies in a Community Family Welfare and Relief Program (New York, 1934)
50. Brown, Public Relief, 413–19.
51. Ruth Lindenberg, “Hard to Reach: Client or Casework Agency?” Social Work (October 1958): 26.
52. Harold Wilensky and Charles Lebeaux, Industrial Society and Social Welfare, 2d ed. (New York, 1965), 172;
53. FSAA Mid-Atlantic Regional Executives’ Workshop, 6 May 1960;
54. Notes on Committee on Range and Emphases, 16-17 September 1960, both in Folder “Function 1958-1960,” Box 31, FSAA;
55. Family-Centered Project Group Discussion Minutes, 7 January 1955, Folder 8, Box 1, St. Paul Family-Centered Project Records, Social Welfare History Archives.
56. Whitney Young, “The Racial Crisis—Implications for Family Service,” Family Service Highlights (February 1964): 35-44;
57. FSAA BoD, 27-28 April 1964, Folder 5, Box 5;
58. Dennis Dickerson, Militant Mediator: Whitney M. Young Jr. (Lexington, Ky. 1998), 125-26.
59. “Family Service for a Changing World,” FSAA Western Workshop, October 1962, Folder “Function 1961-1964,” Box 31, FSAA.
60. Herman Levin, “The Future of Voluntary Family and Children's Social Work,” Social Service Review (1964): 167.
61. “Selected Data on the General Population and on FSAA Member Agencies in the Ten Most Populous Standard Metropolitan Areas in the United States,” January
62. Folder 12, Box 33, FSAA; FSAA BoD, 11-12 May 1961. According to the United Community Funds and Councils of America, federated fund-raising had grown slightly faster than disposable personal income (from which charitable contributions would presumably be drawn) from 1945 to 1961; see UCFCA, Trends in Giving, 1962 (New York, 1962), 2.
63. The House removed from the 1962 bill the provision allowing purchase of service from voluntary organizations; see Martha Derthick, Uncontrollable Spending for Social Services Grants (Washington, D.C. 1975), 10.
64. “The 1956 Budget Request,” July 1955, in Folder Board of Directors 1955, Box 2, Family Service of St. Paul Records, Social Welfare History Archives;
65. James Turrentine, “A Historical Perspective,” in “Family Service for a Changing World”
66. Stanley Davies, Memorandum, 11 May 1961, Folder 27, Box 22, FSAA.
67. “Explanation of Budget Request,” July 1947. BoD 1947 folder, Box 2, FSSP;
68. “Preventative Casework,” Journal of Social Casework (May 1948): 193-94;
69. John G. Hill and Ralph Ormsby, “The Value of Cost Analysis to the Family Agency,” Journal of Social Casework (October 1952): 330-37;
70. Clark Blackburn, “A Family Agency's Role in Programs Combating Poverty,” 18 September 1964, Folder “Function 1961-1964,” Box 31;
71. Matusow, The Unraveling of America, 265.
72. Sanford Kravitz, “Sources of Leadership Input for Social Welfare Planning” (DSW, Brandeis University, 1963).
73. See Matusow, The Unraveling of America, 248–49, 260-62, for brief discussions of community action in those two cities.
74. Selma Belewky, Philadelphia Report, [28 October 1966], all Folder 32, Box 21, FSAA. In many cities, conflict with the community action agencies centered on casework aides, as the agencies sought to supervise or absorb ENABLE aides into their own programs;
75. Fowler, Baltimore Report, 19 September 1966;
76. Eunice Clay, Baltimore Program Evaluation, 23 September 1966;
77. Dudley Cawley, Pittsfield Program Evaluation [5 January 1967], all Folder 30; del Valle, Houston;
78. East Orange Report, [26 September 1966]
79. Cawley, New York Program Evaluation, 16 September 1966, both Folder 31, Box 21.
80. Alexander, Tulsa Report, [26 September 1966] Folder 31;
81. Jean Bryant, “A New Circle,” filed with Salt Lake City reports, 1966, Folder 32, Box 21, FSAA;
82. Matusow, The Unraveling of America, 251.
83. M. Roberts, Minneapolis Report, [16 September 1966], Folder 31;
84. del Valle, Austin Report, [26 September 1966]
85. Alexander, Dallas Report [10 October 1966], Folder 32, Box 21;
86. Fowler, Baltimore;
87. Simulatics Corporation, Evaluation of Project ENABLE (Cambridge, Mass. 1967), p. V-1.
88. Don Hoke, Chicago Report, [26 September 1966], Folder 30;
89. Cawley, Newark Program Evaluation, 6 October 1966;
90. Bertha Shier, Omaha Report, 30 September 1966, both Folder 31;
91. Philadelphia Program Evaluation, 7 November 1966;
92. Clay, Pittsburgh Report, 3 October 1966, both Folder 32, Box 21;
93. Roberts, St. Paul. In Pittsburgh, they found the target population had been “subject to many surveys and programs” and were suspicious of ENABLE.
94. Dudley, San Diego Report, [12 September 1966], Folder 30, Box 21;
95. Mildred Roberts and Josie Johnson, “‘More Than Meetings’—The Impact on Parents,” Social Casework (December 1967): 618-25.
96. “A New Way to Help Families Through Personal Involvement of the Poor,” Family Service Highlights (September-November 1967): 8-12.
97. Simulatics Corporation, Examination of Project ENABLE, p. IV-2.
98. Simulatics Corporation, Examination of Project ENABLE, p. IV-(33-35), V-8.
99. “Report of FSAA Contact—New Orleans,” 28 February 1968, Folder 39, Box 41, FSAA Supp. 1;
100. C. Michael Firmin Jr. “Characteristics of Clients at Family and Child Services Prior to and Subsequent to the Establishment of Neighborhood Centers in 1965,” Part I (MSW, Catholic University, 1968)
101. Neil Gilbert, Clients or Constituents? (San Francisco, 1970), 45-49;
102. Kenneth Heineman, “Model City: The War on Poverty, Race Relations, and Catholic Social Activism in 1960s Pittsburgh,” paper presented at the Policy History Conference, St. Louis, 2002.
103. Trolander, Professionalism and Social Change, 185–87.
104. Mary J. Oates, “Faith and Good Works: Catholic Giving and Taking,” in Lawrence Friedman and Mark McGarvie, eds. Charity, Philanthropy, and Civility in American History (Cambridge, 2003), 291;
105. Critchlow, “Implementing Family Planning Policy.”
106. Derthick, Uncontrollable Spending for Social Services Grants, 12–14;
107. Neil Gilbert, “The Transformation of Social Services,” Social Service Review (December 1977): 624-61;
108. Candace Mueller, “Purchase of Service Contracting from the Point of View of the Provider,” in Kenneth R. Wedel et al. Social Services by Government Contract: A Policy Analysis (New York, 1979), 46-54;
109. Herman Levin, “Voluntary Organizations in Social Welfare,” Social Work Year Book (New York, 1971), 1520;
110. Idem, “Voluntary Organizations in Social Welfare,” Encyclopedia of Social Work (Washington, D.C. 1977), 1578;
111. Trolander, Professionalism and Social Change, 186.
112. Community Health and Welfare Planning Council of St. Paul, “Purchase of Service at Catholic Social Service, Family Service, and Jewish Family Service,” 21 December 1972;
113. Citizen's League, “Overcoming Obstacles to Purchase of Service,” 14 January 1974;
114. Booz, Allen, and Hamilton, Purchase of Social Service: Study of the Experience of Three States in Purchase of Service by Contract Under the Provisions of the 1967 Amendments to the Social Security Act (Washington, D.C. 1971)
115. F. Ellen Netting, “Secular and Religious Funding of Church-Related Agencies,” Social Service Review (December 1982): 588-89.
116. Gordon Manser, “Implications of Purchase of Service for Voluntary Agencies,” Social Casework (June 1972): 421-27;
117. Robert Rice, “Impact of Government Contracts on Voluntary Social Agencies,” Social Casework (July 1975): 387-95.