Setting new thermal standards for transitional and coastal (TraC) waters

Marine Pollution Bulletin

Volumn 64, Issue 8, 2012, Pages 1564-1579

  Wither, Andrew ^a   Bamber, Roger ^b   Colclough, Steve ^c   Dyer, Keith ^d   Elliott, Mike ^e   Holmes, Peter ^f   Jenner, Henk ^g   Taylor, Colin ^h   Turnpenny, Andy ⁱ  

^a NATIONAL OCEANOGRAPHY CENTRE   (United Kingdom)

^b Artoo Marine Biology Consultants   (United Kingdom)

^c ENVIRONMENT AGENCY   (United Kingdom)

^d Milverton   (United Kingdom)

^e UNIVERSITY OF HULL   (United Kingdom)

^f SCOTTISH ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION AGENCY   (United Kingdom)

^g Aquator BV   (Netherlands)

^h EDF ENERGY   (United Kingdom)

ⁱ Turnpenny Horsfield Associates   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Coasts; Cooling water discharges; Estuaries; Marine fish; Temperature; Thermal standards; TraC waters

Indexed keywords

COASTAL POWER; COASTAL WATERS; COOLING WATER DISCHARGES; DISCHARGE VOLUME; EUROPEAN COUNTRIES; FISH SPECIES; LONG-TERM SUSTAINABILITY; MARINE BIOTA; MARINE FISH; POTENTIAL IMPACTS; SEAWATER TEMPERATURE; THERMAL DISCHARGE;

COASTAL ZONES; DISCHARGE (FLUID MECHANICS); ESTUARIES; FISH; SEAWATER; TEMPERATURE;

STANDARDS;

BIOTA; COASTAL WATER; DISCHARGE; ESTUARINE ENVIRONMENT; SUSTAINABILITY; WATER TEMPERATURE;

ANIMAL BEHAVIOR; ARTICLE; COASTAL WATERS; CONTROLLED STUDY; EFFLUENT; ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY; FISH; MARINE ENVIRONMENT; MARINE SPECIES; NONHUMAN; PREDICTION; STANDARD; TEMPERATURE SENSITIVITY; THERMAL POLLUTION; THERMAL STANDARD; VALIDATION STUDY; WATER TEMPERATURE;

ADAPTATION, PHYSIOLOGICAL; ANIMALS; AQUATIC ORGANISMS; FISHES; GLOBAL WARMING; HOT TEMPERATURE; SEAWATER; WATER QUALITY;

UNITED KINGDOM;

EID: 84864137148     PISSN: 0025326X     EISSN: 18793363     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2012.05.019     Document Type: Article

References (117)

1. Able K.W., Fahay M.P. Ecology of estuarine fishes: temperate waters of the western North Atlantic 2010, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, USA, p. 566.
2. Alabaster, J.S. 1989. River Axe Study - Stage 2. Environmental assessment for river abstraction. R. M. Report to Mander.
3. Alabaster J.S. The temperature requirements of adult Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) during their upstream migration in the River Dee. Journal of Fish Biology 1990, 37:659-661.
4. Alabaster, J.S. 1991. Water quality criteria for freshwater fish-review of progress. In: Proceedings of the Institute of Fisheries Management Conference, Fisheries in the Year 2000. Royal Holloway and Bedford New College, University of London, Egham, Surrey, UK.
5. Alabaster, J.S., Downing, A.L., 1966. A field and laboratory investigation of the effect of heated effluents on fish. Fishery Investigations, London, 6(4).
6. Alabaster J.S., Gough P. The dissolved oxygen and temperature requirements of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L., in the Thames Estuary. Journal of Fish Biology 1986, 29:613-621.
7. Alabaster J.S., Gough P.J., Brooker W.J. The environmental requirements of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, L. during their passage through the Thames Estuary. Journal of Fish Biology 1991, 38:741-762.
8. Anon Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000 establishing a framework for the Community action in the field of water policy. Official Journal of the European Community 2000, L327:1-73.
9. Anon Directive 2006/113/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 December 2006 on the quality required of shellfish waters. Official Journal of the European Community 2006, L376(14):1-7.
10. Anon, 2006b. Directive 2006/44/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 6 September 2006 on the quality of fresh waters needing protection or improvement in order to support fish life. Official Journal of the European Union, L 264/20, 25.9.2006.
11. Anon., 2010. European Commission 2010. Technical Guidelines for the Identification of Mixing Zones pursuant to article 4(4) of the EQS Directive (2008/105/EC).
12. Ansell A.D., Barnett P., Bodoy A., Masse H. Upper temperature tolerances of some European Molluscs. Marine Biology 1981, 65:177-183.
13. Attrill M., Power M. Partitioning of temperature resources amongst an estuarine fish assemblage. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 2004, 61:725-738.
14. Avanesov E.M. The present spawning conditions of mullets (genus: Mugil) in the Caspian Sea. Journal of Icthyology 1972, 12:419-425.
15. Baird O., Krueger C. Behavioural thermoregulation of brook and rainbow trout: comparison of summer habitat use in an Adirondack River, NY. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 2003, 132:1194.
16. Bamber, R.N., 1985. Coarse substrate benthos of Kingsnorth outfall lagoon, with observations on Petricola pholadiformis Lamarck, Central Electricity Generating Board Internal Note TPRD/L/2759/N84. pp. 15.
17. Bamber R.N. Power station thermal effluents and marine crustaceans. Journal of Thermal Biology 1990, 15(1):91-96.
18. Bamber R.N., Spencer J.F. The benthos of a coastal power station thermal discharge canal. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 1984, 64:603-623.
19. Bamber R.N., Henderson P.A. Seasonality of caridean decapod and mysid distribution and movements within the Severn Estuary and Bristol Channel. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 1994, 51:83-91.
20. Bamber R.N., Henderson P.A., Turnpenny A.W.H. The early life history of the sand-smelt (Atherina presbyter). Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 1985, 65:697-706.
21. Barton B.A. General biology of salmonids. Principles of Salmonid Culture 1996, 29-96. Elsevier, Amsterdam. W. Pennel, B.A. Barton (Eds.).
22. Brander K. Comparison of Spawning Characteristics of Cod (Gadhus morhua) Stocks in the North Atlantic. NAFO Scientific Council Studies 1993, 18:13-20.
23. Breeman A.M. Relative importance of temperature and other factors in determining geographic boundaries of seaweeds: experimental and phenological evidence. Helgoland Marine Research 1988, 42:199-241.
24. Brett J.R. Energetic responses of salmon to temperature. a study of some thermal relations in the physiology and freshwater ecology of sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka). American Zoologist 1971, 11(1):99-113.
25. Bruijs M.C.M., Jenner H.A., Bijstra D. Recent developments in cooling water discharge guidelines in the Netherlands with support of advanced 3D modelling. Operational and Environmental Consequences of Large Industrial Cooling Water Systems 2011, Springer, Science & Business Media, Norwell, MA. S. Rajagopal, H.A. Jenner, V.P. Venugopalan (Eds.).
26. Bulger A.J. A daily rhythm in heat tolerance in the salt marsh fish Fundulus heteroclitus. Journal of Experimental Zoology 1984, 230(1):11-16.
27. Carvalho-Saucedo, L., 2003. Temperatura letal superior en dos poblaciones de juveniles de ostión japonés Crassostrea gigas. Masters thesis, Centro Interdisciplinario de Ciencias del Mar, IPN, La Paz, México, 68pp.
28. Cherry D.S., Dickson K.L., Cairns J., Stauffer J.R. Preferred, avoided and lethal temperatures of fish during rising temperature conditions. Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 1977, 34:239-246.
29. Clarke D.R., King P.E. Spawning of herring in Milford Haven. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 1985, 65:629-639.
30. Clarke, D.R.K., Evans, D.M., Ellery, D.S., Purvis, W.K., 1994. Migration of the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in the River Tywi estuary during 1988, 1989 and 1990. NRA Report no. RT/WQ/RCEU/94/7. 42pp + Figs.
31. Clough S.C., Turnpenny A.W.H., Holden S.D.J. Experimental measurement of thermal preferenda in sea trout smolts. Journal of Fish Biology 2002, 61:60-63.
32. Colclough S.R., Gray G., Bark A., Knights B. Fish and fisheries of the tidal Thames: management of the modern resource;research aims and future pressures. Journal of Fish Biology 2002, 61(Suppl. A):64-73.
33. Coughlan, J. 1983. Water temperature and fish migration with reference to a thermal discharge in the River Dee. Fawley Aquatic Research Laboratories report to National Power plc No. FCR 030/93.
34. Coull, K.A., Johnstone, R., Rogers, S.I., 1998. Fisheries sensitivity maps in British waters. Published and distributed by UKOOA Ltd, 9 Albyn Terrace, Aberdeen, 58pp.
35. Coutant C.C. Compilation of temperature preference data. Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 1977, 34:739-745.
36. Dempsey C.H., Bamber R.N. Spawning of herring (Clupea harengus) in the Blackwater Estuary, Spring 1979. ICES Journal of Marine Science 1983, 41:85-92.
37. Despatie S.P., Castonguay M., Chabot D., Audet C. Final thermal preferendum of Atlantic cod: effect of food ration. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 2001, 130:263-275.
38. Drinkwater K.F. The response of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) to future climate change. ICES Journal of Marine Sciences 2005, 62(7):1327-1337.
39. Elliott M. Biological pollutants and biological pollution - an increasing cause for concern. Marine Pollution Bulletin 2003, 46:275-280.
40. Fishes in estuaries 2002, Blackwell Science, Oxford, UK, 636 pp. M. Elliott, K.L. Hemingway (Eds.).
41. Elliott M., Whitfield A. Challenging paradigms in estuarine ecology and management. Estuarine, Coastal & Shelf Science 2011, 94:306-314.
42. Engelhard G., Pinnegar J., Kell L., Rijnsdorp A. Nine decades of North Sea sole and plaice distribution. ICES Journal of Marine Science 2011, 68(6):1090-1104.
43. Eno, N.C., Clark, R.A., Sanderson, W.G., 1997. Non-native marine species in British waters: a review and directory. Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough, 152pp.
44. Fazli H., Janbaz A., Taleshian H., Bagherzadeh F. Maturity and fecundity of golden grey mullet (Liza aurata Risso, 1810) in Iranian waters of the Caspian Sea. Journal of Applied Ichthyology 2008, 24:610-613.
45. Fonds M., van Buurt G. The influence of temperature and salinity on the development and survival of goby eggs (Pisces;Gobiidae). Hydrobiological Bulletin (Amsterdam) 1974, 8:110-116.
46. Fox C.J., Aldridge J.N. Hydrographic circulation and the dispersal of yolk-sac herring (Clupea harengus) in the Blackwater Estuary. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 2000, 80:921-928.
47. Freitas V., Campos J., Fonds M., Van der Veer H. Potential impact of temperature change on epibenthic predator-bivalve prey interactions in temperate estuaries. Journal of Thermal Biology 2007, 32:328-340.
48. Fry, F.E.J., 1947. Effects of the environment on animal activity. University of Toronto Studies: Biological Series 55, Publications of the Ontario Fisheries Research Laboratory, 68, 1-62.
49. Gonzalez J.G., Yevitch P.P. Seasonal variation in responses of estuarine populations to heated water in the vicinity of a steam generating plant. Contribution of the Department Marine Science, University of Puerto Rico 1971, 15:127-142.
50. Gruffydd L., Rieser R., Machin D. A comparison of growth and temperature tolerance in the larvae of the lobsters Homarus gammarus (L.) and Homarus americanus H. Milne Edwards (Decapoda, Nephropidae). Crustaceana 1975, 28:23-32.
51. Hara S., Ozongun M., Gunes E., Ceylan B. Broodstock rearing and spawning of Black Sea turbot, Psetta maxima. Turkish Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 2002, 2:9.
52. Haro A. Thermal preferenda and behaviour of Atlantic eels (genus Anguilla) in relation to their spawning migration. Environmental Biology of Fishes 1991, 31:171-184.
53. Hawkins A.D. Factors affecting the timing of entry and upstream movement of Atlantic salmon in the Aberdeenshire Dee. Salmonid Migration and Distribution Symposium 1989, 101-105. University of Washington, Seattle, WA. E. Brannon, B. Jonsson (Eds.).
54. Hering D., Borja A., Carstensen J., Carvalho L., Elliott M., Feld C.K., Heiskanen A.S., Johnson R.K., Moe J., Pont D., Solheim A.L., van de Bund W. The European Water Framework Directive at the age of 10: a critical review of the achievements with recommendations for the future. Science of the Total Environment 2010, 408(19):4007-4019.
55. Hesthagen I.H. Temperature selection and avoidance in the sand goby Pomatoschistus minutus (Pallas) collected at different seasons. Environmental Biology of Fishes 1970, 4(4):369-377.
56. Hesthagen I.H. Temperature selection and avoidance in the sand goby;Pomatoschistus minutus (Pallas), collected at different seasons. Environmental Biology of Fishes 1979, 4(4):369-377.
57. Holmes J.A., Lin P. Thermal niche of Larval Sea Lamprey. Petromyzon marinus, Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 1994, 51(2):253-262.
58. Hopkin R.S., Qari S., Bowler K., Hyde D., Cuculescu M. Seasonal thermal tolerance in marine Crustacea. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 2006, 331(1):74-81.
59. Jacobs Engineering, 2008. Experimental study of juvenile fish avoidance of thermal increments. Report to RWE Npower, Job No. B0822100. Jacobs Engineering, Southampton, UK.
60. Jenner, H.A., Whitehouse, J.W., Taylor, C.J.L., Khalanski, M., Mattice, J., l'Abeé-Lund, J.H., Ambrogi, R., Bamber, ;R.N., Coughlan, J., Duvivier, L., Humphris, T.H., Moreteau, J.-C., Bachmann, V., Rajagopal, S., Turnpenny, A.W.H., and van der Velde, G., 1998. Cooling water management in European power stations. Biology and control of fouling. Hydroécologie Appliquée;10(1-2): i-v;1-225.
61. Jobling M. Temperature preference and thermal preferendum - rapid methods for assessing optimum growth temperatures. Journal of Fish Biology 1981, 19:439-455.
62. Jobling M. Temperature and growth: modulation of growth rate via temperature change. Global warming: implications for freshwater and marine fish 1997, 225-254. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. C.M. Wood, D.G. McDonald (Eds.).
63. Jones S.J., Mieszkowska N., Wethey D. Linking thermal tolerances and biogeography: Mytilis edulis (L.) at its southern limit on the East Coast of the United States. Biological Bulletin 2009, 217:73-85.
64. Kennedy M., Fitzmaurice P. The biology of the bass Dicentrarchus labrax, in Irish Waters. Journal of Marine Biology 1972, 52:557-597.
65. Kingston P. Some observations on the effects of temperature and salinity on the growth of Cardium edule and Cardium glaucum larvae in the laboratory. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 1974, 54:309-317.
66. Langford T.E. Ecological effects of thermal discharges 1990, Elsevier Applied Science London, UK, pp. 468.
67. Langford, T.E., Hawkins, S.J., Bray, S., Hill, C., Wells, N., Yang, Z., 1998. Pembroke Power Station: impact of cooling water discharge on marine biology of Milford Haven. CCW Contract Science Report 302. Countryside Council for Wales, Bangor, Wales, 156pp.
68. Larsson S. Thermal preference of Arctic charr, Salvelinus alpinus, and brown trout, Salmo trutta - implications for their niche segregation. Environmental Biology of Fishes 2005, 73:89-96.
69. LeBlanc N., Landry T., Stryhn H., Tremblay R., McNiven M., Davidson J. The effect of high air and water temperature on juvenile Mytilus edulis in Prince Edward Island, Canada. Aquaculture 2005, 243(1-4):185-194.
70. Loots C., Vaz S., Planque B., Koubbi P. Understanding what controls the spawning distribution of North Sea whiting (Merlangius merlangus) using a multi-model approach. Fisheries Oceanography 2011, 20(1):18-31.
71. Lüning K., Guiry M.D., Masuda M. Upper temperature tolerance of North Atlantic and North Pacific geographic isolates of Chondrus species (Rhodophyta). Helgoländer Meeresuntersuchungen 1986, 41:297-306.
72. Lyle A.A., Maitland P.S. The spawning migration and conservation of smelt Osmerus eperlanus in the River Cree, southwest Scotland. Biological Conservation 1997, 80(3):303-311.
73. Maes J., Stevens M., Breine J. Modelling the migration opportunities of diadromous fish species along a gradient of dissolved oxygen concentration in a European tidal watershed. Estuarine, Coastal & Shelf Science 2007, 10.1016/j.ecss.2007.03.036.
74. Magnuson J.J., Crowder L.B., Medvick P.A. Temperature as an ecological resource. American Zoologist 1979, 19:331-343.
75. Maravelias C.D., Tsitsika E.V., Papaconstantinou C. Environmental influences on the spatial distribution of European hake (Merluccius merluccius) and red mullet (Mullus barbatus) in the Mediterranean. Ecological Research 2006, 22(4):678-685.
76. McCarthy I.D., Houlihan D.F. The effect of temperature on protein metabolism in fish: The possible consequences for wild Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) stocks in Europe as a result of global warming. Society of Experimental Biology Seminar Series 1997, 61:51-77.
77. McLusky D.S., Elliott M. The Estuarine Ecosystem: ecology;threats and management 2004, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 214 pp. 3rd ed.
78. Naismith, I.A., Knights, B., 1988. Migrations of elvers and juvenile European eels, Anguilla anguilla L., in the River Thames. Journal of Fish Biology 33 (Suppl. A).
79. Naylor E. Effects of heated effluents upon marine and estuarine organisms. Advances in Marine Biology 1965, 3:63-103.
80. Ojaveer E. Influence of temperature, salinity, and reproductive mixing of Baltic herring groups on its embryonic development. Rapports et Procès-Verbaux des Réunions du Conseil International pour l'Exploration de la Mer 1981, 178:409-415.
81. Olenin S., Minchin D., Daunys D. Assessment of biopollution in aquatic ecosystems. Marine Pollution Bulletin 2007, 55:379-394.
82. Olenin;S;Elliott;M;Bysveen;I;Culverhouse;P;Daunys;D;Dubelaar;GBJ;Gollasch;S;Goulletquer;P;Jelmert;A;Kantor;Y;Mézeth;KB;Minchin;D;Occhipinti-Ambrogi;A;Olenina;I;Vandekerkhove;J. (In press) Recommendations on methods for the detection and control of biological pollution in marine coastal waters. Marine Pollution Bulletin doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.08.011.
83. Climate Change 2007 Synthesis Report Contribution of Working Groups I II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2007, IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland. R.K. Pachauri, A. Reisinger (Eds.).
84. Petersen M., Steffensen J. Preferred temperature of juvenile Atlantic cod Gadus morhua with different haemoglobin genotypes at normoxia and moderate hypoxia. The Journal of Experimental Biology 2003, 206:359-364.
85. Piano A., Asirelli C., Caselli F., Fabbri E. Hsp70 expression in thermally stressed Ostrea edulis;a commercially important oyster in Europe. Cell Stress and Chaperones 2002, 7(3):250-257.
86. Pickett G.D., Pawson M.G. Sea bass: biology, exploitation and conservation 1994, Chapman & Hall, London, UK.
87. Planque B., Bellier E., Lazure P. Modelling potential spawning habitat of sardine (Sardina pilchardus) and anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus) in the Bay of Biscasy. Fisheries Oceanography 2007, 16(1):16-30.
88. Pombo L., Elliott M., Rebelo J. Ecology, age and growth of Atherina boyeri and Atherina presbyter in the Ria de Aveiro, Portugal. Cymbium 2005, 29(1):47-55.
89. Power M., Attrill M.J. Long-term trends in the estuarine abundance of Nilsson's pipefish (Syngnathus rostellatus Nilsson). Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 2003, 57(1-2):325-333.
90. Power M., Attrill M.J., Thomas R.M. Temporal abundance patterns and growth of juvenile herring and sprat in the Thames Estuary 1997-1992. Journal of Fish Biology 2000, 56(6):1408-1426.
91. Priede, I.G., Solbe, J.F., deL., G., Nott, J.E., O'Grady, K.T., Cragg-Hine, D., 1988. Behaviour of adult Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L. in the estuary of the River Ribble in relation to variation in dissolved oxygen and tidal flows. Journal of Fish Biology 33 (A)133-139.
92. Rajagopal S., van der Velde G., Jansen J., van der Gaag M., Atsma G., Janssen-Mommen J., Polman H., Jenner H. Thermal tolerance of the invasive oyster Crassostrea gigas: feasibility of heat treatment as an antifouling option. Water Research 2005, 39:4335-4342.
93. Reid, R.N., Cargnelli, L.M., Griesbach, S.J., Packer, D.B., Johnson, D.L., Zetlin, C.A., Morse, W.W., Berrien, P.L., 1999. Essential fish habitat source document: Atlantic Herring;Clupea harengus, Life history and habitat characteristics. [Online] Available at: [Accessed 23 Jan 2011.]. http://www.nefsc.noaa.gov/.
94. Reynolds W.W., Casterlin M.E. Behavioural thermoregulation by ammocoete larvae of the Sea Lamprey (Petromyzon marinus) in an electronic shuttlebox. Hydrobiologia 1978, 61(2):145-147.
95. Rijnsdorp, A.D., de Leeuw, J., van der Veer, H.W., Teal, L., 2008. Effect of climate change on the growth of 0-group sole and plaice. Effects of Climate Change on the World's Oceans, International Symposium, Gijón, Spain. May 19-23.
96. Rombough P.J. The effects of temperature on embryonic and larval development. Global warming: implications for freshwater and marine fish 1997, 177-224. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. C.M. Wood, D.G. McDonald (Eds.).
97. Rosten, C., Horsfield, R., Anderson, K., Turnpenny, A., 2010. Influences of environmental variables and stocking on Atlantic salmon upstream migrations in the River Thames, UK. In: Kemp, P., (Ed.), Salmonid Fisheries: Freshwater Habitat Management, Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Oxford, UK, pp. 296-306.
98. Sicard M., Maeda-Martinez A., Lluch-Cota S., Lodeiros C., Roldan-Carrillo L., Mendoza-Alfaro R. Frequent monitoring of temperature: an essential requirement for site selection in bivalve aquaculture in tropical-temperature transition zones. Aquaculture Research 2006, 37:1040-1049.
99. Solomon D.J., Sambrook H.T. Effects of hot dry summers on the loss of Atlantic salmon Salmo salar from estuaries in South West England. Fisheries Management and Ecology 2004, 11:353-363.
100. Spencer, J.F., 1970. Diurnal and seasonal temperature changes in littoral soil on Pwllcrochan Flats;Milford Haven;in relation to Pembroke Power Station. CEGB Internal Report No. RD/L/R/ 1641. Central Electricity Research Laboratories, Leatherhead, UK.
101. Spigarelli S., Thommes M., Prepejchal W., Goldstein R.M. Selected temperatures and thermal experience of brown trout, Salmo trutta, in a steep thermal gradient in nature. Environmental Biology of Fishes 1983, 8(2):137-149.
102. Straughan, D., 1980a. Impact of Southern California Edison's operations on intertidal solid substrates in King Harbor. Southern California Edison Company Research and development Series, 80-RD-95.
103. Straughan, D., 1980b. The impact of shoreline thermal discharge on rocky intertidal biota. Southern California Edison Company Research and development Series, 81-RD-3.
104. Tongiorgi P., Tosi L., Balsamo M. Thermal preferences in upstream migrating glass-eels of Anguilla anguilla (L.). Journal of Fish Biology 1986, 28(4):501-510.
105. Turnpenny A.W.H., Bamber R.N., Henderson P.A. Biology of the sand-smelt (Atherina presbyter Valenciennes) around Fawley Power Station. Journal of Fish Biology 1981, 18:417-427.
106. Turnpenny, A.W.H., Coughlan, J., Ng, B., Crews, P., Bamber, R.N., Rowles, P., 2010. Cooling Water Options for the New Generation of Nuclear Power Stations in the UK. Environment Agency, Evidence Directorate SC070015/SR3, Bristol, UK.
107. Turnpenny A.W.H., Liney K.E. Review and development of temperature standards for marine and freshwater environments 2007, Scotland and Northern Ireland Forum for Environmental Research, Edinburgh, UK.
108. UKCP09, 2011. The UK Climate Projections Project website. Available at: [Accessed 24 February 2011]. http://ukclimateprojections.defra.gov.uk.
109. UKTAG, 2008a. UK Environmental Standards and Conditions Phase 1. UK Technical Advisory Group on the Water Framework Directive.
110. UKTAG, 2008b. UK Environmental Standards and Conditions Phase 2. UK Technical Advisory Group on the Water Framework Directive.
111. Wahl, E., Alheit, J., 1988. Changes in the distribution and abundance of sprat eggs during spawning season. ICES C.M. 1988/H:45.
112. Welch E.B., Lindell T. Ecological effects of waste water 1980, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
113. Wheeler A. The fishes of the British Isles and Northwest Europe 1969, Macmillan, London, UK.
114. Wiederholm A.M. Habitat selection and interactions between three marine fish species (Gobiidae). OIKOS 1987, 48:28-32.
115. Wood, M.J., Turnpenny, A.W.H., 1994. Laboratory reactions of salmonid juveniles and smolts to a thermal interface. Fawley Aquatic Research Laboratory, unpublished report, 18, available from the authors.
116. WQTAG, 2006. Guidance on assessing the impact of thermal discharges on European marine sites. For: Habitats Directive Technical Advisory Group on Water Quality, Version 3, January.
117. Yeung, H.Y., 1983. A review of the effects of temperature and thermal discharge from power stations on aquatic biota with particular reference to China Light and Power Castle Peak 'A' Power Station. China Light and Power Ltd., Scientific and technical Services department, Report No. SSB/ED/R/10-83; 231-266.