메뉴 건너뛰기




Volumn , Issue 9, 2010, Pages 111-144

Postcolonial studies and the discourse of Foucault: Survey of a field of problematization

Author keywords

Bhabha; Foucault; Postcolonial ethics; Postcolonial politics; Postcolonial theory; Said; Spivak

Indexed keywords


EID: 84863661358     PISSN: None     EISSN: 18325203     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.22439/fs.v0i9.3062     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (39)

References (89)
  • 1
    • 84891816944 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Public philosophy as critical activity
    • Cambridge: Cambridge UP
    • My use of these terms and this method is owed to work by James Tully who, in turn, draws from the Cambridge School (particularly Quentin Skinner), Wittgenstein and Foucault himself to develop his methodological approach. See James Tully ''Public philosophy as critical activity," in Public Philosophy in a New Key, vol. I: Democracy and Civic Freedom (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2008), 15-38.
    • (2008) Public Philosophy in A New Key, Vol. I: Democracy and Civic Freedom , pp. 15-38
    • Tully, J.1
  • 2
    • 84891820150 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Princeton: Princeton UP
    • David Scott has also self-consciously situated his work within this tradition, in his case drawing from R. G. Collingwood in addition to the thinkers above. One of the defining features of this tradition or school of thought is, according to Scott, the notion that 'to understand any proposition it is first necessary to identify the question to which the proposition may be regarded as an answer." From this general interpretive-hermeneutic, the practice of criticism proceeds by asking 'whether the moment of normalization of a paradigm is not also the moment when it is necessary to reconstruct and reinterrogate the ground of questions themselves through which it was brought into being in the first place; to ask whether the critical yield of the normal problem-space continues to be what it was when it first emerged; and, if not, to ask what set of questions is emerging in the new problem-space that might reconfigure and so expand the conceptual terrain in which an object is located."(David Scott, Refashioning Futures (Princeton: Princeton UP, 1999), 5 and 8-9) My aim here, then, is to critically interrogate 'postcolonialism" not as a static position which one could either be 'for" or 'against," but rather in terms of the 'ground of questions" that have animated it as a practice over the last 25 to 30 years. In other words, I am attempting to ask: What are the (implicitly or explicitly held) questions to which 'postcolonialism" is understood as a response?
    • (1999) Refashioning Futures , vol.5 , pp. 8-9
    • Scott, D.1
  • 3
    • 67650036355 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • London: Pearson
    • While not stated in precisely these terms, I have benefited from the analysis provided by the critical surveys of Barbara Bush, Imperialism and Postcolonialism (London: Pearson, 2006);
    • (2006) Imperialism and Postcolonialism
    • Bush, B.1
  • 6
    • 0003377298 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Postcolonialism and its discontents
    • Ali Rattansi, 'Postcolonialism and its discontents," Economy and Society, 26(4), 1997: 480-500;
    • (1997) Economy and Society , vol.26 , Issue.4 , pp. 480-500
    • Rattansi, A.1
  • 7
    • 0001051865 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • History and imperialism: A century of theory from marx to postcolonialism
    • April
    • Patrick Wolfe, 'History and Imperialism: A century of theory, from Marx to Postcolonialism," The American Historical Review, vol. 102, No. 2 (April 1997): 388-420);
    • (1997) The American Historical Review , vol.102 , Issue.2 , pp. 388-420
    • Wolfe, P.1
  • 10
    • 84891765245 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cited in Young, Postcolonialism: A very short introduction, 2. Ania Loomba writes: 'By the 1930s, colonies and ex-colonies covered 84.6 per cent of the land surface of the globe. Only parts of Arabia, Persia, Afganistan, Mongolia, Tibet, China, Siam and Japan had never been under formal European government." (Loomba, 3).
    • Postcolonialism: A Very Short Introduction , vol.2
    • Young1
  • 11
    • 0000005366 scopus 로고
    • Under western eyes: Feminist scholarship and colonial discourses
    • Spring-Autumn
    • Chandra Mohanty's definition, while useful, points to this ambiguity. She argues that 'colonization al-most invariably implies a relation of structural domination, and a suppression-often violent-of the heterogeneity of the subject(s) in question." While all cases of 'colonialism" might have this feature, it is surely also the case that not everything which 'implies a relation of structural domination" can be classified as 'colonialism." Thus, the explanatory construct here is insufficiently precise to be of much use in differen-tiating colonialism as a specific practice (i.e., the establishment of permanent settlements abroad as a means of dispossessing other political communities from their land and as a strategy of securing political control over foreign peoples), say, from other kinds of 'structural domination" such as those exhibited by modern states against 'internal enemies." See Chandra Mohanty, 'Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses," boundary 2, Vol.12, No.3 (Spring-Autumn, 1984): 333-358, p. 333.
    • (1984) Boundary 2 , vol.12 , Issue.3 , pp. 333-358
    • Mohanty, C.1
  • 12
    • 0003335260 scopus 로고
    • Postcolonialism: What's in a name?
    • in de la Campa, Kaplan and Spinkler (eds.), London: Verso
    • As Barbara Bush notes, 'There are thus debates about when the postcolonial began: this has been pushed back to the American Revolution, the decolonization of Latin America and the founding of Australia. It has been argued that postcolonialism begins with colonialism itself, perhaps as far back as 1492 with the earliest practices of resistance." (Bush, 51). See also Aijaz Ahmad, 'Postcolonialism: What's in a Name?" in de la Campa, Kaplan and Spinkler (eds.), Late Imperial Culture (London: Verso, 1995), 14.
    • (1995) Late Imperial Culture , pp. 14
    • Ahmad, A.1
  • 13
    • 84891823631 scopus 로고
    • NY: Vintage
    • It became possible, for instance, to meaningfully speak of a 'postcolonial reading" of a text such as Mansfield Park in Said's Culture and Imperialism (NY: Vintage, 1993).
    • (1993) Mansfield Park in Said's Culture and Imperialism
  • 14
    • 0003520266 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This is not to say, of course, that the question of representation was not important to thinkers prior to the emergence of 'postcolonial theory" in the narrow and specifically academic sense in which I am using it here. For instance, Michel Leiris posed the question of anthropological knowledge and the practice of colo-nization in his work from the 1950s, and the negritude movement, often drawing directly from work by Aimé Césaire often centrally considered questions of (self)representation. Nevertheless, I think it is accurate to say that questions of representation were not as centrally featured in the work of these thinkers as was, say, the political aims to which re-presenting colonized subjects were put, namely: decolonization of their homelands. On this questions, see James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture, 255-256
    • The Predicament of Culture , pp. 255-256
    • Clifford, J.1
  • 17
    • 0010206682 scopus 로고
    • Including America
    • Jan.
    • See, for instance, Peter Hulme, 'Including America," Ariel 26.1 (Jan. 1995): 117-123.
    • (1995) Ariel , vol.26 , Issue.1 , pp. 117-123
    • Hulme, P.1
  • 18
    • 84891803823 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Leela Ghandi has commented on this application of 'postcolonial" status to white settler communities: 'This sort of semantic vacuum is most evident in the claim, made by some Australian and Canadian commentators, that settler societies stand in the same relationship to colonialism as those societies which have experienced the full force and violence of colonial domination. Such claims entirely neutralise, in the name of subject formation, the widely divergent logics of settlement and struggles for independence. Equally, they confer a seamless and undiscriminating postcoloniality on both white settler cultures and on those indigenous peoples displaced through their encounter with these cultures." (Leela Ghandi, Postcolonial Theory, 168-9). And, as Rosemary Jolly notes, in South Africa, where Afrikaners 'continued to see themselves as victims of English colonisation< the imagined continuation of this victimization was used to justify the maintenance of apartheid.
    • Postcolonial Theory , pp. 168-169
    • Ghandi, L.1
  • 19
    • 9744284556 scopus 로고
    • Rehearsals of liberation: Contemporary postcolonial discourse and the new South Africa
    • January
    • See Rosemary Jolly, 'Rehearsals of Liberation: Contemporary Postcolonial Discourse and the New South Africa," PMLA: Publications of the Modern Language Association of America (January 1995), 110(1): 17-29, 22. Ania Loomba has called this last example (South Africa) 'the most bizarre instance" of white settlers claiming status as 'colonized peoples" vis à vis the imperial centers, which has not only effaced their active role in colonization but also served to facilitate the ongoing dispossession of land. (Loomba, 14) To this I would merely note that the case of South Africa is not 'bizarre" at all if 'bizarre" is taken to mean 'unusual" or 'exceptional." In the Americas, for instance, the struggle against 'British tyranny" on the part of the American revolutionaries was often understood as complementary to the wars of extermination and dispossession against Indigenous nations.
    • (1995) PMLA: Publications of the Modern Language Association of America , vol.110 , Issue.1 , pp. 17-29
    • Jolly, R.1
  • 20
    • 0006548125 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Chicago: University of Chicago Press
    • Recent work of this kind, by and about political theorists, includes Uday Singh Mehta, Liberalism and Empire (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999);
    • (1999) Liberalism and Empire
    • Mehta, U.S.1
  • 22
    • 33745299933 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Princeton: Princeton UP
    • Jennifer Pitts, A Turn to Empire (Princeton: Princeton UP, 2006)
    • (2006) A Turn to Empire
    • Pitts, J.1
  • 24
    • 2542432825 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cambridge: Cambridge UP
    • For an example of this, see Duncan Ivison, Postcolonial Liberalism (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2002).
    • (2002) Postcolonial Liberalism
    • Ivison, D.1
  • 25
    • 17844382828 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Durham: Duke UP
    • Though this is certainly not limited to explicitly 'counter- enlightenment" thinkers. For instance, see Char-les Taylor, Modern Social Imaginaries (Durham: Duke UP, 2004).
    • (2004) Modern Social Imaginaries
    • Taylor, C.1
  • 26
    • 0003144028 scopus 로고
    • The postcoloni-alization of the latin american experience
    • Gyan Prakash (ed.), Princeton: Princeton UP
    • Whether this links up with ethics as I am using the term here turns entirely on what one understands by 'philosophy" however. Jorge Klor de Alva defines postcoloniality as an 'oppositional consciousness emerging from either pre-existing colonial or ongoing sub-altern relations," as affecting Latin American mestizos, US Latinos or African-Americans with an aim to challenging and revising forms of domination, past and present. (Jorge Klor de Alva, 'The Postcoloni-alization of the Latin American Experience," in Gyan Prakash (ed.), After Colonialism: Imperial Histories and Postcolonial Displacements (Princeton: Princeton UP, 1995), 245-246 (emphasis added)).
    • (1995) After Colonialism: Imperial Histories and Postcolonial Displacements , pp. 245-246
    • De Alva, J.K.1
  • 27
    • 84908354701 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Philosophy as a revolutionary weapon
    • NY: Monthly Review Press
    • A helpful analogue might be the use of 'Marxism" as a term for a specific political struggle with an end state or telos and as a method of analysis but (more often than not) not as an ethic of living. The very pos-sibility of Marxist ethics in this sense has been at the heart of such a long debate in that field I cannot but gesture to it here. It is worth noting in passing however that Althusser, for instance, once commented that 'It is not easy to become a Marxist philosopher. Like every 'intellectual," a philosophy teacher is a petty bourgeois. When he opens his mouth, it is petty-bourgeois ideology that speaks: its resources and ruses are infinite< To become 'ideologists of the working class" (Lenin), 'organic intellectuals" of the proletariat (Gramsci), intellectuals have to carry out a radical revolution of their ideas: a long, painful and difficult re-education. An endless external and internal struggle." (Louis Althusser, 'Philosophy as a Revolutionary Weapon," in Lenin and Philosophy and other Essays (NY: Monthly Review Press, 2001), 2).
    • (2001) Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays , pp. 2
    • Althusser, L.1
  • 28
    • 84874892839 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • NY: Routledge
    • One admission of failing on my part: I acknowledge that my survey of the use of Foucault in 'post-colonialism" has almost entirely excluded work in Latin American studies. This is a failing that reflects my current expertise, but also the fact that postcolonial theory has its own geographic biases and preoccupations (particularly with North Africa and India). For some work in this area see Benigno Trigo (ed.), Foucault and Latin America (NY: Routledge, 2001)
    • (2001) Foucault and Latin America
    • Trigo, B.1
  • 30
    • 0004205967 scopus 로고
    • NY & London: Routledge
    • On the importance of this formulation to the field, Gayatri Spivak writes that 'the study of colonial dis-course, directly released by work such as Said's< blossomed into a garden where the marginal can speak and be spoken, even spoken for. It is an important part of the discipline now." (Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Outside in the Teaching Machine (NY & London: Routledge, 1993), 56.)
    • (1993) Outside in the Teaching Machine , pp. 56
    • Spivak, G.C.1
  • 31
    • 84891786479 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Bhabha, LC, 109.
    • LC , pp. 109
    • Bhabha1
  • 32
    • 0003520266 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This objection is made clearly by James Clifford, amongst others. Clifford notes that 'discourse" analysis cannot safely be founded on redefined 'traditions." Nor can it be derived from a study of 'authors." De-spite heavy criticism, Said (unlike Foucault) nevertheless relies upon 'the essential (beginning and con-tinuing) function of an authorial intention." (Clifford, The Predicament of Culture, 268).
    • The Predicament of Culture , pp. 268
    • Clifford1
  • 33
    • 0003118744 scopus 로고
    • Problems in current theories of colonial discourse
    • Others who would fall into this category include, for instance, Benita Parry and Patrick Wolfe. See Benita Parry, 'Problems in Current Theories of Colonial Discourse," Oxford Literary Review 9 (1987): 27-58 and
    • (1987) Oxford Literary Review , vol.9 , pp. 27-58
    • Parry, B.1
  • 34
    • 0010095649 scopus 로고
    • Resistance theory/ theorising resistance, or two cheers for nativism
    • Manchester: Manchester UP
    • Resistance Theory/ Theorising Resistance, or Two Cheers for Nativism," in Francis Barker, Peter Hulme and Margaret Ivison (eds.), Colonial Discourse/ Postcolonial Theory (Manchester: Manchester UP, 1994): 172-96;
    • (1994) Colonial Discourse/ Postcolonial Theory , pp. 172-196
    • Barker, F.1    Hulme, P.2    Ivison, M.3
  • 37
    • 24944533681 scopus 로고
    • London: Verso
    • In addition to the question of 'textual idealism," for instance, Ahmad is concerned to point out that the 'Nietzchean" tradition within which Foucault is working and which Said draws upon is decidedly 'anti-humanist," is committed to the notion that 'no true representation is possible because all human communications always distort the facts" and, unlike the Marxist tradition, which has been 'notably anti-imperialist; the Nietzschean tradition had had no such credentials." (Aijaz Ahmad, In Theory (London: Verso, 1992), 193 and 222).
    • (1992) Theory , pp. 193-222
    • Ahmad, A.1
  • 39
    • 0001051865 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Patrick Wolfe describes Said's supposed idealism as 'distinctly Cartesian< In producing its other as an object of thought and acting upon it, colonial discourse reproduces the familiar priority of mind over matter." (Wolfe, 'History and Imperialism," 409).
    • History and Imperialism , pp. 409
    • Wolfe1
  • 40
    • 0001013038 scopus 로고
    • The postcolonial aura: Third world criticism in the age of global capitalism
    • Ibid., 192. Arif Dirlik has made a similar point, accusing Third World intellectuals of being complicit in the very imperial capitalism they purport to undermine. He asks, rather polemically, 'When exactly< does the 'post-colonial" begin? .When Third World intellectuals have arrived in First World academe."(Dirlik, 'The Postcolonial Aura: Third World Criticism in the Age of Global Capitalism," Critical Inquiry 20 (1994): 328-29).
    • (1994) Critical Inquiry , vol.20 , pp. 328-329
    • Dirlik1
  • 41
    • 0009063360 scopus 로고
    • Translator's preface
    • Jacques Derrida. (Baltimore & London: The Johns Hopkins UP)
    • Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, 'Translator's preface," in Jacques Derrida, Of Grammatology (Baltimore & London: The Johns Hopkins UP, 1976), ix-lxxxvii.
    • (1976) Of Grammatology
    • Spivak, G.C.1
  • 42
    • 0040557325 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Spivak's 'preface" is, as we might expect from such a unique thinker in her own right, something more than a preface though less than a full statement of her own position. Thus, it is with some trepidation that one could attribute to this essay Spivak's full understanding of Foucault in this period. Her brief comments are nevertheless illuminating. Spivak surveys the Derrida-Foucault debate (especially pp. lix-lxii), arising from the former's critique of The History of Madness (parti-cularly Foucault's reading of Descartes therein). She then notes: 'This is a dated Foucault, the Foucault of the sixties. Even then he was violently unwilling to be called a structuralist, and he gets into this section of my preface because he diagnoses an age in terms of its episteme, the self-defined structure of its knowing. This particular characteristic of Foucault's work has not disappeared. To diagnose the epistemic structure, he has had, with repeated protestations to the contrary, to step out of epistemic structures in general, assuming that were possible. To write his 'archaeologies," he has had to analyze metaphors privileged by a particular age in which Derrida would call 'meta-metaphorics." By describing grammatology as a 'history of the possibility of history that would no longer be an archaeology," (43, 28), Derrida seems to declare an advance over Foucault. And by denying the status of a positive science to grammatology, he 'erases" the advance.' (Spivak, 'Translator's preface, lx.)
    • Translator's Preface
    • Spivak1
  • 43
    • 84891793842 scopus 로고
    • Paris: Gallimard
    • Even in this quick statement, a few noteworthy themes come to light. First, in the early 1970s Spivak is aware of and conversant with Foucault and Foucauldian scholar-ship-mediated as it may be by Derrida and the debate between the two; second, that the heart of her concern with Foucault is his notions of episteme and discourse, both of which Spivak finds problematic and superseded by Derrida; third, Spivak highlights the temporal situatedness of this reading, referring to Foucault's analysis as 'dated', 'of the sixties" and developed in relation to French structuralism of the time. Note that Spivak is speaking of Foucault as presented in the original 1961 publication of Folie et Déraison (Paris: Libarie Plon) through to L'archéologie du savoir (Paris: Gallimard, 1969). The distance of 'dating" here is, at most, fifteen years. This will become relevant to my later discussion of Spivak's A Critique of Post-colonial Reason in which the 1972 conversation with Deleuze (some twenty-seven years earlier) is used as the primary textual referent which, in Spivak's estimation, 'has not necessarily been superseded."
    • (1969) Folie et Déraison (Paris: Libarie Plon) Through to L'archéologie du Savoir
  • 45
    • 0003006304 scopus 로고
    • Can the subaltern speak? [1985]
    • in Cary Nelson and Lawrence Grossberg (eds.) Chicago: University of Illinois Press, p. 272
    • first, that the networks of power/desire/interest are so heterogeneous that their reduction to a coherent narrative is counterproductive-a persistent critique is needed; and second, that intellectuals must attempt to disclose and know the discourse of society's Other." (Gayatri Spivak, 'Can the subaltern speak? [1985]," in Cary Nelson and Lawrence Grossberg (eds.), Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1988), 271-313, at p. 272. Hereafter cited as CSS).
    • (1988) Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture , pp. 271-313
    • Spivak, G.1
  • 46
  • 47
    • 0004023926 scopus 로고
    • Ithaca, NY: Cornell
    • This discussion was originally held on March 4, 1972 and is published in Michel Foucault, Language, Counter-Memory, Practice (Ithaca, NY: Cornell, 1977), 205-217.
    • (1977) Language, Counter-Memory, Practice , pp. 205-217
    • Foucault, M.1
  • 48
    • 0009924686 scopus 로고
    • More on power/knowledge
    • NY & London: Routledge
    • An exception to this is the later essay Gayatri Spivak, 'More on power/knowledge," in Outside in the Teaching Machine (NY & London: Routledge, 1993), 27-57. I will discuss this in a later section when I take up excep-tions to the general field as outlined here.
    • (1993) Outside in the Teaching Machine
    • Spivak, G.1
  • 49
    • 85050713818 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Said, 'Afterword," 349.
    • Afterword , pp. 349
  • 50
    • 0003824081 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Although Lyotard is mentioned by name here, and not Foucault, it is clear that Said came to see both as associated with 'postmodernism" in the sense in which it is characterized here. For instance, in Culture and Imperialism, he writes, 'The later Jean-François Lyotard and Michel Foucault, eminent French philosophers who emerged during the 1960s as apostles of radicalism and intellectual insurgency, describe a striking new lack of faith in what Lyotard calls the great legitimizing narratives of emancipation and enlightenment<. Foucault also turned his attention away form the oppositional forces in modern society which he had studied for their undeterred resistance to exclusion and confinement-delinquents, poets, outcasts, and the like-and decided to concentrate on the local micro-physics of power that surround the individual. The self was therefore to be studied, cultivated, and, if necessary, refashioned and constituted. In both Lyotard and Foucault we find precisely the same trope employed to explain the disappointment in the politics of liberation: narrative, which posits an enabling beginning point and a vindicating goal, is no longer adequate for plotting the human trajectory in society. There is nothing to look forward to: we are stuck within our circle. And now the line in enclosed by a circle. After years of support for anti-colonial struggles in Algeria, Cuba, Vietnam, Palestine, Iran, which came to represent their deepest engagement in the politics and philo-sophy of anti-imperialist decolonization, a moment of exhaustion and disappointment was reached. One began to hear and read how futile it was to support revolutions, how barbaric were the new regimes that came to power, how-this is an extreme case-decolonization had benefited 'world communism.""(Said, Culture and Imperialism, 29-30).
    • Culture and Imperialism , pp. 29-30
  • 51
    • 0004232653 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Princeton: Princeton UP
    • Dipesh Charkrabarty (Provincializing Europe (Princeton: Princeton UP, 2000), 6) has recently echoed this association as well: 'Writings by poststructuralist philosophers such as Michel Foucault have undoubtedly given a fillip to global critiques of historicism. But it would be wrong to think of postcolonial critiques of historicism (or of the political) as simply deriving from critiques already elaborated by postmodern and poststructuralist thinkers of the West. In fact, to think this way would itself be to practice historicism, for such a thought would merely repeat the temporal structure of the statement
    • (2000) Provincializing Europe , pp. 6
    • Charkrabarty, D.1
  • 52
    • 1842700378 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Representing the colonized: Anthropology's interlocutors [1988]
    • Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UP
    • Edward Said, 'Representing the Colonized: Anthropology's Interlocutors [1988]," in Reflections on Exile and other Essays (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UP, 2002), 312-313.
    • (2002) Reflections on Exile and Other Essays , pp. 312-313
    • Said, E.1
  • 53
    • 84886312674 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Even in the original formulation of Orientalism, there was some hint that Said wanted to distance himself from Foucault in this regard: 'Foucault believes that in general the individual text or author counts for very little; empirically, in the case of Orientalism (and perhaps nowhere else) I find this not to be so. Accordingly my analyses employ close textual readings whose goal is to reveal the dialectic between individual text or writer and the complex collective formation to which his work is a contribution." Said, Orientalism, 23-24.
    • Orientalism , pp. 23-24
    • Said1
  • 55
    • 80053680147 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Foucault and the imagination of power [1986]
    • Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UP
    • Foucault and the Imagination of Power [1986] " all in Reflections on Exile and Other Essays (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UP, 2002).
    • (2002) Reflections on Exile and Other Essays
  • 60
    • 84891753263 scopus 로고
    • For instance, in a later essay, in reference to the last two volumes of The History of Sexuality, Said has only this to say: 'What caused this particular and overdetermined shift from the political to the personal, was, among other things, the effect of some disenchantment with the public sphere, more particularly perhaps because he felt that there was little he could do to affect it. Perhaps also his fame had allowed a considerable relaxation in the formidable, and the formidably public, regimen of erudition, production, and performance he had imposed on himself." (Said, 'Michel Foucault, 1927-1984," 194).
    • (1927) Michel Foucault , pp. 194
    • Said1
  • 61
    • 0003824081 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Said, Culture and Imperialism, 59-60) This, I submit, maps very nicely onto the analysis Foucault first notes, in a preliminary way, in Discipline and Punish, in which he argues that power relations are not 'univocal," but rather 'define innumerable points of confrontation, focuses of instability, each of which has its own risks of conflict, of struggles, and of an at least temporary inversion of the power relations. The over throw of these 'micro-powers.
    • Culture and Imperialism , pp. 59-60
    • Said1
  • 62
    • 0004125178 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • does not, then obey the law of all or nothing; it is not acquired once and for all by a new control of the apparatuses nor by a new functioning or a destruction of the institutions; on the other hand, none of its localized episodes may be inscribed in history except by the effects that it induces on the entire network in which it is caught up." (Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish, 27) It even more closely matches the 'interactionist" model of power given by Foucault in 'The subject and power" and it is precisely the opening up to this question that lead Foucault to think in terms of ethics. More on this below.
    • Discipline and Punish , pp. 27
    • Foucault, M.1
  • 63
    • 0004258102 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 2nd ed. London: Routledge, [First ed.
    • Robert Young, White Mythologies, 2nd ed. (London: Routledge, 2004) [First ed. 1990].
    • (1990) White Mythologies
    • Young, R.1
  • 64
    • 0004258102 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Young notes Said's indebtedness to Foucault and that the former's use of the latter is problematic, but does not attempt to correct this through direct reference to Foucault's own work. See, for example, Young, White Mythologies, 166.
    • White Mythologies , pp. 166
    • Young1
  • 67
    • 0003288958 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Aijaz Ahmad, 'Orientalism and After," 166. James Clifford, from a different perspective and to different ends, echoes this when he writes that, at times, 'Said could not be farther from Foucault's austere pages,"
    • Orientalism and after , pp. 166
    • Ahmad, A.1
  • 68
    • 84860437577 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Stocksfield: Acumen
    • One further example of this: In a recent introductory text to the field, Jane Hiddleston includes a chapter entitled 'Foucault and Said: Colonial Discourse and Orientalism," in which she collapses the critical potential of Foucault's work for the study of postcolonialism into the concept of 'discourse," and specifically Said's use of it. See Jane Hiddleson, Understanding Postcolonialism (Stocksfield: Acumen, 2009), Chapter 4.
    • (2009) Understanding Postcolonialism
    • Hiddleson, J.1
  • 69
    • 0003410905 scopus 로고
    • Durham & London: Duke UP
    • Stoler's work begins with a similar analysis to that given above. She notes that although 'no single ana-lytic framework has saturated the field of colonial studies so completely over the last decade as that of Foucault," nevertheless these readings, for the most part, have been of a particular kind: by and large, applying the general principles of a Foucauldian frame to specific ethnographic time and place, drawing on the conceptual apparatus more than engaging the historical content of his analysis.
    • (1995) Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things
    • Laura Stoler, A.1
  • 70
    • 84891773648 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • She then goes on to interrogate Foucault's account of the history of sexuality in relation to his understanding of the rise of modern racism and colonialism, demonstrating the inadequacy of the connections made between the two by Foucault. (Ann Laura Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham & London: Duke UP, 1995), 1 and 2) Stoler does not mention the postcolonial theorists I have discussed above, instead citing the Subaltern Studies collective, particularly work by Partha Chatterjee and David Arnold, as examples of work whose engagement with Foucault is 'conceptual, not historical." (Stoler, Race and The Eductation of Desire, 2, ft.4).
    • Race and the Eductation of Desire , pp. 2
    • Stoler1
  • 71
    • 2942669827 scopus 로고
    • More on modes of power and the peasantry
    • Ranajit Guha and Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (eds.) (Oxford: Oxford UP
    • Not withstanding Stoler's assessment (above, ft. 120), Partha Chatterjee's work is an excellent example of longstanding (critical) engagement with Foucault on questions of 'discourse-representation" and govern-mentality. See, Partha Chatterjee, 'More on Modes of Power and the Peasantry," in Selected Subaltern Studies, Ranajit Guha and Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (eds.) (Oxford: Oxford UP, 1988);
    • (1988) Selected Subaltern Studies
    • Chatterjee, P.1
  • 75
    • 84891790026 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • NY: Picador
    • Stoler also makes (considerably less) use of the lectures from 1974-75, Abnormal (NY: Picador, 1999), 1977-78
    • Abnormal , vol.1999 , pp. 1977-1978
    • Stoler1
  • 76
    • 26444496792 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • NY: Palgrave MacMillan
    • Security, Territory, Population (NY: Palgrave MacMillan, 2007) and 1978-79
    • (2007) Security Territory Population , pp. 1978-1979
  • 77
    • 41049088952 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • NY: Palgrave MacMillan
    • The Birth of Biopolitics (NY: Palgrave MacMillan, 2008).
    • (2008) The Birth of Biopolitics
  • 78
    • 84900751863 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Bloo-mington & Indianapolis: Indiana UP
    • More recent-ly, Ladelle McWhorter has presented a modified Foucauldian genealogy that incorporates the influence of colonial Anglo-America on the development of 'race discourse" and modern state racism in ways that Fou-cault himself did not. See McWhorter, Racism and Sexual Oppression in Anglo-America: A Genealogy (Bloo-mington & Indianapolis: Indiana UP, 2009).
    • (2009) Racism and Sexual Oppression in Anglo-America: A Genealogy
    • McWhorter1
  • 79
    • 84891797708 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Amongst the postcolonial 'theorists," for instance, the notion that Foucault had nothing much to say about colonial governmentality, racism, or liberal (neo)imperialism is still prevalent. As an example, Leela Gandhi's claim that 'It is only in an early essay, 'George Canguilhem: philosopher of error," that Foucault explicitly equates European knowledges and the mirage of Western rationality with the 'economic domination and political hegemony" of colonialism" is just factually incorrect.
    • George Canguilhem: Philosopher of Error
    • Gandhi, L.1
  • 81
    • 0011052039 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Introduction
    • NY: Zone Books
    • The Foucault quote can be found in his 'Introduction" to George Canguilhem, The Normal and the Patho-logical (NY: Zone Books, 1997), 7-23, at p. 12.
    • (1997) The Normal and the Patho-logical , pp. 7-23
    • Canguilhem, G.1
  • 82
    • 0942305929 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Berkeley: University of California Press
    • Other more recent texts that take up Foucault in relation to substantive issues of colonialism and im-perialism, albeit in very different and conflicting ways, include Ann Laura Stoler, Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002);
    • (2002) Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power
    • Laura Stoler, A.1
  • 85
    • 0002878266 scopus 로고
    • Two lectures
    • NY: Pantheon
    • This is Foucault's term, referring to 'knowledges that have been disqualified as inadequate to their task or insufficiently elaborated: naïve knowledges, located down on the hierarchy, beneath the required level of cognition or scienticity."(Michel Foucault, 'Two lectures," in Power/Knowledge (NY: Pantheon, 1980), 82)
    • (1980) Power/Knowledge , pp. 82
    • Foucault, M.1
  • 86
    • 84891820538 scopus 로고
    • especially lecture 1, January 7
    • This is elaborated upon in 'Society must be defended," especially lecture 1, January 7, 1976, 1-21.
    • (1976) Society Must Be Defended , pp. 1-21
  • 87
    • 68849092916 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Durham & London: Duke
    • Another interesting and important study that might be characterized as contributing to 'postcolonial ethics" in this broad sense is Leela Gandhi's Affective Communities (Durham & London: Duke, 2006). This work focuses on the 'politics of friendship" in the context of anti-colonial struggle, specifically how affective bonds between individuals working within disparate communities (for instance, early 'homosexual rights" activists in Europe and Indian anti-colonial movement) helped to build capacities for undermining imperial power. I leave a more detailed discussion of this aside as Gandhi draws upon Foucault in framing this study only marginally.
    • (2006) Affective Communities
    • Gandhi, L.1


* 이 정보는 Elsevier사의 SCOPUS DB에서 KISTI가 분석하여 추출한 것입니다.