Malaria: A haematological disease

Hematology

Volumn 17, Issue 2, 2012, Pages 106-114

  Akinosoglou, Karolina S ^a   Solomou, Elena E ^a   Gogos, Charalambos A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL OF PATRAS   (Greece)

Author keywords

Malaria; Malaria leukocytosis; Malarial anaemia; Thrombocytopenia in malaria

Indexed keywords

BLOOD CLOTTING FACTOR 12; COLONY STIMULATING FACTOR 1; COMPLEMENT COMPONENT C3B RECEPTOR; DECAY ACCELERATING FACTOR; GAMMA INTERFERON; INTERLEUKIN 12; PREKALLIKREIN; QUININE; THROMBIN ANTITHROMBIN COMPLEX; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA;

ANEMIA; ARTICLE; BLOOD CLOTTING DISORDER; CAUSE OF DEATH; CYTOKINE PRODUCTION; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE SEVERITY; DISSEMINATED INTRAVASCULAR CLOTTING; DYSERYTHROPOIESIS; ERYTHROCYTE LIFESPAN; EXCHANGE BLOOD TRANSFUSION; FOLLOW UP; HEMATOLOGIC DISEASE; HUMAN; INTRAVASCULAR HEMOLYSIS; LEUKOCYTOSIS; LEUKOPENIA; MALARIA; MALARIA FALCIPARUM; MOLECULAR PATHOLOGY; NONHUMAN; PLASMODIUM FALCIPARUM; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; PROTEIN FUNCTION; SPLENOMEGALY; THROMBOCYTOPENIA;

ANEMIA; ANTIMALARIALS; BLOOD COAGULATION; BLOOD TRANSFUSION; ERYTHROPOIESIS; HEMOLYSIS; HUMANS; LEUKOCYTES; MALARIA, FALCIPARUM; PLASMODIUM FALCIPARUM; SPLENOMEGALY; THROMBOCYTOPENIA;

EID: 84862978908     PISSN: 10245332     EISSN: 16078454     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1179/102453312X13221316477336     Document Type: Article

References (152)

1. Snow RW, Guerra CA, Noor AM, Myint HY, Hay SI. The global distribution of clinical episodes of Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Nature. 2005;434(7030):214-217.
2. Snow RW, Bastos de Azevedo I, Lowe BS, Kabiru EW, Nevill CG, Mwankusye S, et al. Severe childhood malaria in two areas of markedly different falciparum transmission in east Africa. Acta Trop. 1994;57(4):289-300.
3. Modiano D, Sirima BS, Sawadogo A, Sanou I, Pare J, Konate A, et al. Severe malaria in Burkina Faso: influence of age and transmission level on clinical presentation. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1998;59(4):539-542.
4. Snow RW, Omumbo JA, Lowe B, Molyneux CS, Obiero JO, Palmer A, et al. Relation between severe malaria morbidity in children and level of Plasmodium falciparum transmission in Africa. Lancet. 1997;349(9066):1650-1654.
5. Hill AV, Allsopp CE, Kwiatkowski D, Anstey NM, Twumasi P, Rowe PA, et al. Common west African HLA antigens are associated with protection from severe malaria. Nature. 1991; 352(6336):595-600.
6. Stoltzfus RJ, Chwaya HM, Montresor A, Albonico M, Savioli L, Tielsch JM. Malaria, hookworms and recent fever are related to anemia and iron status indicators in 0- to 5-y old Zanzibari children and these relationships change with age. J Nutr. 2000;130(7):1724-1733.
7. World Health Organization. The Prevention and Management of Severe Anemia in Children in Malaria-Endemic Regions of Africa: A Review of Research. Geneva: WHO; 2001.
8. Marsh K, Forster D, Waruiru C, Mwangi I, Winstanley M, Marsh V, et al. Indicators of lifethreatening malaria in African children. N Engl J Med. 1995;332(21):1399-1404.
9. Schellenberg D, Menendez C, Kahigwa E, Font F, Galindo C, Acosta C, et al. African children with malaria in an area of intense Plasmodium falciparum transmission: features on admission to the hospital and risk factors for death. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1999;61(3):431-438.
10. Shulman CE, Graham WJ, Jilo H, Lowe BS, New L, Obiero J, et al. Malaria is an important cause of anaemia in primigravidae: evidence from a district hospital in coastal Kenya. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1996;90(5):535-539.
11. Dondorp AM, Angus BJ, Chotivanich K, Silamut K, Ruangveerayuth R, Hardeman MR, et al. Red blood cell deformability as a predictor of anemia in severe falciparum malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1999;60(5):733-737.
12. Das BS, Nanda NK, Rath PK, Satapathy RN, Das DB. Anaemia in acute, Plasmodium falciparum malaria in children from Orissa state, India. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 1999;93(2): 109-118.
13. Nakazawa S, Looareesuwan S, Fujioka H, Pongponratn E, Luc KD, Rabbege J, et al. A correlation between sequestered parasitized erythrocytes in subcutaneous tissue and cerebral malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1995;53(5):544-546.
14. Looareesuwan S, Davis TM, Pukrittayakamee S, Supanaranond W, Desakorn V, Silamut K, et al. Erythrocyte survival in severe falciparum malaria. Acta Trop. 1991;48(4): 263-270.
15. Jakeman GN, Saul A, Hogarth WL, Collins WE. Anaemia of acute malaria infections in nonimmune patients primarily results from destruction of uninfected erythrocytes. Parasitology. 1999;119(Pt 2):127-133.
16. Evans KJ, Hansen DS, van Rooijen N, Buckingham LA, Schofield L. Severe malarial anemia of low parasite burden in rodent models results from accelerated clearance of uninfected erythrocytes. Blood. 2006;107(3):1192-1199.
17. Ekvall H. Malaria and anemia. Curr Opin Hematol. 2003; 10(2):108-114.
18. Lutz HU, Pfister M, Hornig R. Tissue homeostatic role of naturally occurring anti-band 3 antibodies. Cell Mol Biol (Noisyle-grand). 1996;42(7):995-1005.
19. Omodeo-Sale F, Motti A, Basilico N, Parapini S, Olliaro P, Taramelli D. Accelerated senescence of human erythrocytescultured with Plasmodium falciparum. Blood. 2003;102(2): 705-711.
20. Pantaleo A, Giribaldi G, Mannu F, Arese P, Turrini F. Naturally occurring anti-band 3 antibodies and red blood cell removal under physiological and pathological conditions. Autoimmun Rev. 2008;7(6):457-462.
21. Giribaldi G, Ulliers D, Mannu F, Arese P, Turrini F. Growth of Plasmodium falciparum induces stage-dependent haemichrome formation, oxidative aggregation of band 3, membrane deposition of complement and antibodies, and phagocytosis of parasitized erythrocytes. Br J Haematol. 2001;113(2):492-499.
22. Omodeo-Sale F, Motti A, Dondorp A, White NJ, Taramelli D. Destabilisation and subsequent lysis of human erythrocytes induced by Plasmodium falciparum haem products. Eur J Haematol. 2005;74(4):324-332.
23. Waitumbi JN, Opollo MO, Muga RO, Misore AO, Stoute JA. Red cell surface changes and erythrophagocytosis in children with severe Plasmodium falciparum anemia. Blood. 2000; 95(4):1481-1486.
24. Serghides L, Smith TG, Patel SN, Kain KC. CD36 and malaria: friends or foes? Trends Parasitol. 2003;19(10):461-469.
25. Brattig NW, Kowalsky K, Liu X, Burchard GD, Kamena F, Seeberger PH. Plasmodium falciparum glycosylphosphatidylinositol toxin interacts with the membrane of non-parasitized red blood cells: a putative mechanism contributing to malaria anemia. Microbes Infect. 2008;10(8):885-891.
26. Stoute JA, Odindo AO, Owuor BO, Mibei EK, Opollo MO, Waitumbi JN. Loss of red blood cell complement regulatory proteins and increased levels of circulating immune complexes are associated with severe malarial anemia. J Infect Dis. 2003; 187(3):522-525.
27. Pawluczkowycz AW, Lindorfer MA, Waitumbi JN, Taylor RP. Hematin promotes complement alternative pathway-mediated deposition of C3 activation fragments on human erythrocytes: potential implications for the pathogenesis of anemia in malaria. J Immunol. 2007;179(8):5543-5552.
28. Roestenberg M, McCall M, Mollnes TE, van Deuren M, Sprong T, Klasen I, et al. Complement activation in experimental human malaria infection. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2007; 101(7):643-649.
29. Chang KH, Tam M, Stevenson MM. Inappropriately low reticulocytosis in severe malarial anemia correlates with suppression in the development of late elytroid precursors. Blood. 2004;103(10):3727-3735.
30. Roberts DJ, Casals-Pascual C, Weatherall DJ. The clinical and pathophysiological features of malarial anaemia. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2005;295:137-167.
31. Wickramasinghe SN, Abdalla SH. Blood and bone marrow changes in malaria. Baillieres Best Pract Res Clin Haematol. 2000;13(2):277-299.
32. Casals-Pascual C, Kai O, Cheung JO, Williams S, Lowe B, Nyanoti M, et al. Suppression of erythropoiesis in malarial anemia is associated with hemozoin in vitro and in vivo. Blood. 2006;108(8):2569-2577.
33. Lamikanra AA, Theron M, Kooij TW, Roberts DJ. Hemozoin (malarial pigment) directly promotes apoptosis of erythroid precursors. PLoS One. 2009;4(12):e8446.
34. Martiney JA, Sherry B, Metz CN, Espinoza M, Ferrer AS, Calandra T, et al. Macrophage migration inhibitory factor release by macrophages after ingestion of Plasmodium chabaudi- infected erythrocytes: possible role in the pathogenesis of malarial anemia. Infect Immun. 2000;68(4):2259-2267.
35. Chang KH, Stevenson MM. Malarial anaemia: mechanisms and implications of insufficient erythropoiesis during bloodstagemalaria. Int J Parasitol. 2004;34(13-14):1501-1516.
36. Schofield L, Vivas L, Hackett F, Gerold P, Schwarz RT, Tachado S. Neutralizing monoclonal antibodies to glycosylphosphatidylinositol, the dominant TNF-alpha-inducing toxin of Plasmodium falciparum: prospects for the immunotherapy of severe malaria. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 1993;87(6):617-626.
37. Stevenson MM, Riley EM. Innate immunity to malaria. Nat Rev Immunol. 2004;4(3):169-180.
38. Rusten LS, Jacobsen SE. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha directly inhibits human erythropoiesis in vitro: role of p55 and p75 TNF receptors. Blood. 1995;85(4):989-996.
39. Means RT, Jr., Krantz SB. Inhibition of human elytroid colony-forming units by tumor necrosis factor requires beta interferon. J Clin Invest. 1993;91(2):416-419.
40. Taverne J, Sheikh N, de Souza JB, Playfair JH, Probert L, Kollias G. Anaemia and resistance to malaria in transgenic mice expressing human tumour necrosis factor. Immunology. 1994;82(3):397-403.
41. Papadaki HA, Kritikos HD, Valatas V, Boumpas DT, Eliopoulos GD. Anemia of chronic disease in rheumatoid arthritis is associated with increased apoptosis of bone marrow erythroid cells: improvement following anti-tumor necrosis factor-alpha antibody therapy. Blood. 2002;100(2): 474-482.
42. Braczkowski R, Romanawsky W, Danikiewicz A, Muc- Wierzgon M, Blazelonis A, Zubelewicz B. Decrease of erythropoietin level by human recombinant tumour necrosis factor alpha (hrec TNFalpha) in patients with advanced cancer. J Biol Regul Homeost Agents. 2001;15(4):366-369.
43. Lackritz EM, Campbell CC, Ruebush TK, 2nd, Hightower AW, Wakube W, Steketee RW, et al. Effect of blood transfusion on survival among children in a Kenyan hospital. Lancet. 1992; 340(8818):524-528.
44. English M, Ahmed M, Ngando C, Berkley J, Ross A. Blood transfusion for severe anaemia in children in a Kenyan hospital. Lancet. 2002;359(9305):494-495.
45. Meremikwu M, Smith HJ. Blood transfusion for treating malarial anaemia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2000(2):CD001475.
46. Miller KD, Greenberg AE, Campbell CC. Treatment of severe malaria in the United States with a continuous infusion of quinidine gluconate and exchange transfusion. N Engl J Med. 1989 Jul 13;321(2):65-70.
47. Hoontrakoon S, Suputtamongkol Y. Exchange transfusion as an adjunct to the treatment of severe falciparum malaria. Trop Med Int Health. 1998;3(2):156-161.
48. Looareesuwan S, Phillips RE, Karbwang J, White NJ, Flegg PJ, Warrell DA. Plasmodium falciparum hyperparasitaemia: use of exchange transfusion in seven patients and a review of the literature. Q J Med. 1990;75(277):471-481.
49. Burchard GD, Kroger J, Knobloch J, Hartmann WJ, Eichenlaub D, Moling O, et al. Exchange blood transfusion in severe falciparum malaria: retrospective evaluation of 61 patients treated with, compared to 63 patients treated without, exchange transfusion. Trop Med Int Health. 1997;2(8):733-740.
50. Powell VI, Grima K. Exchange transfusion for malaria and Babesia infection. Transfus Med Rev. 2002;16(3):239-250.
51. van Genderen PJ, Hesselink DA, Bezemer JM, Wismans PJ, Overbosch D. Efficacy and safety of exchange transfusion as an adjunct therapy for severe Plasmodium falciparum malaria in nonimmune travelers: a 10-year single-center experience with a standardized treatment protocol. Transfusion. 2010; 50(4):787-794.
52. Wilkinson RJ, Brown JL, Pasvol G, Chiodini PL, Davidson RN. Severe falciparum malaria: predicting the effect of exchange transfusion. QJM. 1994;87(9):553-557.
53. Zucker JR, Campbell CC. Malaria. Principles of prevention and treatment. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 1993;7(3):547-567.
54. Pasvol G, Jacobs M. What is the future of exchange transfusion for falciparum malaria? J Infect. 1999;39(3):183-184.
55. Riddle MS, Jackson JL, Sanders JW, Blazes DL. Exchange transfusion as an adjunct therapy in severe Plasmodium falciparum malaria: a meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;34(9): 1192-1198.
56. Zhang Y, Telleria L, Vinetz JM, Yawn D, Rossmann S, Indrikovs AJ. Erythrocytapheresis for Plasmodium falciparum infection complicated by cerebral malaria and hyperparasitemia. J Clin Apher. 2001;16(1):15-18.
57. Nieuwenhuis JA, Meertens JH, Zijlstra JG, Ligtenberg JJ, Tulleken JE, van der Werf TS. Automated erythrocytapheresis in severe falciparum malaria: a critical appraisal. Acta Trop. 2006;98(3):201-206.
58. Macallan DC, Pocock M, Robinson GT, Parker-Williams J, Bevan DH. Red cell exchange, erythrocytapheresis, in the treatment of malaria with high parasitaemia in returning travellers. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2000 Jul-Aug;94(4):353-356.
59. Boctor FN. Red blood cell exchange transfusion as an adjunct treatment for severe pediatric falciparum malaria, using automated or manual procedures. Pediatrics. 2005 Oct;116(4): e592-e595.
60. Van den Ende J, Moorkens G, Van Gompel A, Demey H, Lins R, Maldague P, et al. Twelve patients with severe malaria treated with partial exchange transfusion. Comparison between mathematically predicted and observed effect on parasitaemia. Trop Geogr Med. 1994;46(6):340-345.
61. Maina RN, Walsh D, Gaddy C, Hongo G, Waitumbi J, Otieno L, et al. Impact of Plasmodium falciparum infection on haematological parameters in children living inWestern Kenya. Malar J. 2010;9(Suppl 3):S4.
62. Shaikh QH, Ahmad SM, Abbasi A, Malik SA, Sahito AA, Munir SM. Thrombocytopenia in malaria. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak. 2009;19(11):708-710.
63. Alfandari S, Santre C, Chidiac C, Senneville E, Leroy O, Beuscart C, et al. Imported malaria: presentation and outcome of 111 cases. Clin Microbiol Infect. 1996;2(2):86-90.
64. Patel U, Gandhi G, Friedman S, Niranjan S. Thrombocytopenia in malaria. J Natl Med Assoc. 2004;96(9): 1212-1214.
65. Horstmann RD, Dietrich M. Haemostatic alterations in malaria correlate to parasitaemia. Blut. 1985;51(5):329-335.
66. Essien EM. The circulating platelet in acute malaria infection. Br J Haematol. 1989;72(4):589-590.
67. Conte R, Tassi C, Belletti D, Ricci F, Tazzari PL. Autoimmune thrombocytopenia in malaria. Vox Sang. 2003;85(3):221.
68. Kreil A, Wenisch C, Brittenham G, Looareesuwan S, Peck- Radosavljevic M. Thrombopoietin in Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Br J Haematol. 2000;109(3):534-536.
69. Karanikas G, Zedwitz-Liebenstein K, Eidherr H, Schuetz M, Sauerman R, Dudczak R, et al. Platelet kinetics and scintigraphic imaging in thrombocytopenic malaria patients. Thromb Haemost. 2004;91(3):553-557.
70. Tyagi P, Biswas S. Naturally occurring plasmodia-specific circulating immune complexes in individuals of malaria endemic areas in India. Indian J Malariol. 1999;36(1-2):12-18.
71. Damoiseaux J, van der Ven A, Hermsen R, Telgt D, Roestenberg M, Tervaert JW, et al. Experimental infection with Plasmodium falciparum does not result in the induction of anticardiolipin antibodies in healthy volunteers. Ann Rheum Dis. 2005;64(12):1804-1805.
72. Facer CA, Theodoridou A. Elevated plasma levels of P-selectin (GMP-140/CD62P) in patients with Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Microbiol Immunol. 1994;38(9):727-731.
73. Lee SH, Looareesuwan S, Chan J, Wilairatana P, Vanijanonta S, Chong SM, et al. Plasma macrophage colony-stimulating factor and P-selectin levels in malaria-associated thrombocytopenia. Thromb Haemost. 1997;77(2):289-293.
74. Butthep P, Bunyaratvej A. An unusual adhesion between redcells and platelets in falciparum malaria. J Med Assoc Thai. 1992;75(Suppl 1):195-202.
75. Scott CS, Van Zyl D, Ho E, Ruivo L, Mendelow B, Coetzer TL. Thrombocytopenia in patients with malaria: automated analysis of optical platelet counts and platelet clumps with the Cell Dyn CD4000 analyser. Clin Lab Haematol. 2002;24(5): 295-302.
76. Osim EE, Adegunloye BJ, Emeribe AO. In vivo platelet aggregation in acute malaria. Acta Trop. 1991;49(3):227-232.
77. Emuchay CI, Usanga EA. Increased platelet factor 3 activity in Plasmodium falciparum malaria. East Afr Med J. 1997;74(8):527-529.
78. Wassmer SC, Taylor T, Maclennan CA, Kanjala M, Mukaka M, Molyneux ME, et al. Platelet induced clumping of Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes from Malawian patients with cerebral malaria - possible modulation in vivo by thrombocytopenia. J Infect Dis. 2008;197(1):72-78.
79. de Mast Q, Groot E, Lenting PJ, de Groot PG, McCall M, Sauerwein RW, et al. Thrombocytopenia and release of activated von Willebrand Factor during early Plasmodium falciparum malaria. J Infect Dis. 2007;196(4):622-628.
80. Ladhani S, Lowe B, Cole AO, Kowuondo K, Newton CR. Changes in white blood cells and platelets in children with falciparum malaria: relationship to disease outcome. Br J Haematol. 2002;119(3):839-847.
81. Kochar DK, Das A, Kochar A, Middha S, Acharya J, Tanwar GS, et al. Thrombocytopenia in Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax and mixed infection malaria: a study from Bikaner (Northwestern India). Platelets. 2010;21(8):623-627.
82. Arman M, Raza A, Tempest LJ, Lyke KE, Thera MA, Kone A, et al. Platelet-mediated clumping of Plasmodium falciparum infected erythrocytes is associated with high parasitemia butnot severe clinical manifestations of malaria in African children. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2007;77(5):943-946.
83. Casals-Pascual C, Kai O, Newton CR, Peshu N, Roberts DJ. Thrombocytopenia in falciparum malaria is associated with high concentrations of IL-10. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2006; 75(3):434-436.
84. Rogier C, Gerardin P, Imbert P. Thrombocytopenia is predictive of lethality in severe childhood falciparum malaria. Arch Dis Child. 2004;89(8):795-796.
85. Pain A, Ferguson DJ, Kai O, Urban BC, Lowe B, Marsh K, et al. Platelet-mediated clumping of Plasmodium falciparuminfected erythrocytes is a common adhesive phenotype and is associated with severe malaria. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2001;98(4):1805-1810.
86. Gerardin P, Rogier C, Ka AS, Jouvencel P, Brousse V, Imbert P. Prognostic value of thrombocytopenia in African children with falciparum malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2002;66(6): 686-691.
87. Francischetti IM, Seydel KB, Monteiro RQ, Whitten RO, Erexson CR, Noronha AL, et al. Plasmodium falciparuminfected erythrocytes induce tissue factor expression in endothelial cells and support the assembly of multimolecular coagulation complexes. J Thromb Haemost. 2007;5(1):155-165.
88. Mohanty D, Ghosh K, Nandwani SK, Shetty S, Phillips C, Rizvi S, et al. Fibrinolysis, inhibitors of blood coagulation, and monocyte derived coagulant activity in acute malaria. Am J Hematol. 1997;54(1):23-29.
89. Sharma SK, Das RK, Das BK, Das PK. Haematological andcoagulation profile in acute falciparum malaria. J Assoc Physicians India. 1992;40(9):581-583.
90. Srichaikul T, Puwasatien P, Karnjanajetanee J, Bokisch VA, Pawasatien P. Complement changes and disseminated intravascular coagulation in Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Lancet. 1975;1(7910):770-772.
91. Clemens R, Pramoolsinsap C, Lorenz R, Pukrittayakamee S, Bock HL, White NJ. Activation of the coagulation cascade in severe falciparum malaria through the intrinsic pathway. Br J Haematol. 1994;87(1):100-105.
92. Combes V, Coltel N, Faille D, Wassmer SC, Grau GE. Cerebral malaria: role of microparticles and platelets in alterations of the blood-brain barrier. Int J Parasitol. 2006;36(5):541-546.
93. Mohanty D, Marwaha N, Ghosh K, Chauhan AP, Shah S, Sharma S, et al. Vascular occlusion and disseminated intravascular coagulation in falciparum malaria. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 1985;290(6462):115-116.
94. Pukrittayakamee S, White NJ, Clemens R, Chittamas S, Karges HE, Desakorn V, et al. Activation of the coagulation cascade in falciparum malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1989;83(6):762-766.
95. Rojanasthien S, Surakamolleart V, Boonpucknavig S, Isarangkura P. Hematological and coagulation studies in malaria. J Med Assoc Thai. 1992;75(Suppl 1):190-1494.
96. Omoigberale AI, Abiodun PO, Famodu AA. Fibrinolytic activity in children with Plasmodium falciparum malaria. East Afr Med J. 2005;82(2):103-105.
97. Rankin LG, Austin DL. The use of activated protein C in severe Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Anaesth Intensive Care. 2007; 35(3):428-432.
98. Gimenez F, Barraud de Lagerie S, Fernandez C, Pino P, Mazier D. Tumor necrosis factor alpha in the pathogenesis of cerebral malaria. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2003;60(8):1623-1635.
99. Clark IA, Budd AC, Alleva LM, Cowden WB. Human malarial disease: a consequence of inflammatory cytokine release. Malar J. 2006;5:85.
100. Francischetti IM, Seydel KB, Monteiro RQ. Blood coagulation, inflammation, and malaria. Microcirculation. 2008; 15(2):81-107.
101. Kochar DK, Kochar SK, Agrawal RP, Sabir M, Nayak KC, Agrawal TD, et al. The changing spectrum of severe falciparum malaria: a clinical study from Bikaner (northwest India). J Vector Borne Dis. 2006;43(3):104-108.
102. Vicas AE, Albrecht H, Lennox JL, del Rio C. Imported malaria at an inner-city hospital in the United States. Am J Med Sci. 2005;329(1):6-12.
103. Metha SR, Joshi V, Lazar AI. Unusual acute and chronic complications of malaria. J Assoc Physicians India. 1996;44(7): 451-453.
104. Kochhar R, Goenka MK, Mehta S, Mehta SK. Gastrointestinal bleeding in malaria. Indian J Gastroenterol. 1990;9(4):295-296.
105. Mbanya D, Tapko JB, Azowe F, Kaptue L. [Aetiologic factors and clinical features associated with thrombocytopenia in Cameroonese adults: the importance of Plasmodium falciparum malaria]. Sante. 2002;12(3):331-335.
106. White RH. Quartan malarial nephrotic syndrome. Nephron. 1973;11(2):147-162.
107. Suyaphun A, Wiwanitkit V, Suwansaksri J, Nithiuthai S, Sritar S, Suksirisampant W, et al. Malaria among hill tribe communities in northern Thailand: a review of clinical manifestations. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 2002;33(Suppl 3): 14-15.
108. Bruneel F, Gachot B, Wolff M, Bedos JP, Regnier B, Danis M, et al. [Black water fever]. Presse Med. 2002;31(28):1329-1334.
109. Wiwanitkit V. Overt bleeding in malarial patients: experience and review. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. 2008;19(1):1-4.
110. Wilairatana P, Krudsood S, Tangpukdee N. Vitamin K injection in spontaneous bleeding and coagulopathy in severe malaria: pros and cons. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 2010;41(3):514-516.
111. McKenzie FE, Prudhomme WA, Magill AJ, Forney JR, Permpanich B, Lucas C, et al. White blood cell counts and malaria. J Infect Dis. 2005;192(2):323-330.
112. Tangpukdee N, Yew HS, Krudsood S, Punyapradit N, Somwong W, Looareesuwan S, et al. Dynamic changes in white blood cell counts in uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum and P. vivax malaria. Parasitol Int. 2008;57(4):490-494.
113. Taylor WR, Widjaja H, Basri H, Ohrt C, Taufik T, Tjitra E, et al. Changes in the total leukocyte and platelet counts in Papuan and non Papuan adults from northeast Papua infected with acute Plasmodium vivax or uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Malar J. 2008;7:259.
114. Rzepczyk CM, Stamatiou S, Anderson K, Stowers A, Cheng Q, Saul A, et al. Experimental human Plasmodium falciparum infections: longitudinal analysis of lymphocyte responses with particular reference to gamma delta T cells. Scand J Immunol. 1996;43(2):219-227.
115. Church LW, Le TP, Bryan JP, Gordon DM, Edelman R, Fries L, et al. Clinical manifestations of Plasmodium falciparum malaria experimentally induced by mosquito challenge. Infect Dis. 1997;175(4):915-920.
116. Modiano D, Sirima BS, Konate A, Sanou I, Sawadogo A. Leucocytosis in severe malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2001;95(2):175-176.
117. Sowunmi A, Akindele JA, Balogun MA. Leukocyte counts in falciparum malaria in African children from an endemic area. Afr J Med Med Sci. 1995;24(2):145-149.
118. Dale DC, Wolff SM. Studies of the neutropenia of acute malaria. Blood. 1973;41(2):197-206.
119. Hviid L, Theander TG, Abdulhadi NH, Abu-Zeid YA, Bayoumi RA, Jensen JB. Transient depletion of T cells with high LFA-1 expression from peripheral circulation during acute Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Eur J Immunol. 1991; 21(5):1249-1253.
120. Wyler DJ. Peripheral lymphocyte subpopulations in human falciparum malaria. Clin Exp Immunol. 1976;23(3):471-476.
121. Hviid L. Peripheral T-cell non-responsiveness in individuals exposed to Plasmodium falciparum malaria. APMIS Suppl. 1995;53:1-46.
122. Hviid L, Kurtzhals JA, Goka BQ, Oliver-Commey JO, Nkrumah FK, Theander TG. Rapid reemergence of T cells into peripheral circulation following treatment of severe and uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Infect Immun. 1997;65(10):4090-4093.
123. Toure-Balde A, Sarthou JL, Aribot G, Michel P, Trape JF, Rogier C, et al. Plasmodium falciparum induces apoptosis in human mononuclear cells. Infect Immun. 1996;64(3):744-750.
124. Kern P, Dietrich M, Hemmer C, Wellinghausen N. Increased levels of soluble Fas ligand in serum in Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Infect Immun. 2000;68(5):3061-3063.
125. Matsumoto J, Kawai S, Terao K, Kirinoki M, Yasutomi Y, Aikawa M, et al. Malaria infection induces rapid elevation of the soluble Fas ligand level in serum and subsequent T lymphocytopenia: possible factors responsible for the differences in susceptibility of two species of Macaca monkeys to Plasmodium coatneyi infection. Infect Immun. 2000;68(3):1183-1188.
126. Means RT, Jr., Dessypris EN, Krantz SB. Inhibition of human erythroid colony-forming units by interleukin-1 is mediated by gamma interferon. J Cell Physiol. 1992;150(1):59-64.
127. Schwarzer E, Turrini F, Ulliers D, Giribaldi G, Ginsburg H, Arese P. Impairment of macrophage functions after ingestionof Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes or isolated malarial pigment. J Exp Med. 1992;176(4):1033-1041.
128. Prada J, Malinowski J, Muller S, Bienzle U, Kremsner PG. Hemozoin differentially modulates the production of interleukin 6 and tumor necrosis factor in murine malaria. Eur Cytokine Netw. 1995;6(2):109-112.
129. Schwarzer E, Arese P. Phagocytosis ofmalarial pigment hemozoin inhibits NADPH-oxidase activity in human monocyte-derived macrophages. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1996;1316(3):169-175.
130. Skorokhod OA, Alessio M, Mordmuller B, Arese P, Schwarzer E. Hemozoin (malarial pigment) inhibits differentiation and maturation of human monocyte-derived dendritic cells: a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma-mediated effect. J Immunol. 2004;173(6):4066-4074.
131. Millington OR, Di Lorenzo C, Phillips RS, Garside P, Brewer JM. Suppression of adaptive immunity to heterologous antigens during Plasmodium infection through hemozoin-induced failure of dendritic cell function. J Biol. 2006;5(2):5.
132. Giribaldi G, Ulliers D, Schwarzer E, Roberts I, Piacibello W, Arese P. Hemozoin- and 4-hydroxynonenal-mediated inhibition of erythropoiesis, Possible role in malarial dyserythropoiesis and anemia. Haematologica. 2004;89(4):492-493.
133. Lyke KE, Diallo DA, Dicko A, Kone A, Coulibaly D, Guindo A, et al. Association of intraleukocytic Plasmodium falciparum malaria pigment with disease severity, clinical manifestations, and prognosis in severe malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2003; 69(3):253-259.
134. Metzger WG, Mordmuller BG, Kremsner PG. Malaria pigment in leucocytes. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1995; 89(6):637-638.
135. Kremsner PG, Valim C, Missinou MA, Olola C, Krishna S, Issifou S, et al. Prognostic value of circulating pigmented cells in African children with malaria. J Infect Dis. 2009;199(1): 142-150.
136. Greenwood BM, Armstrong JR. Comparison of two simple methods for determining malaria parasite density. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1991 Mar-Apr;85(2):186-188.
137. Hanscheid T, Melo-Cristino J, Pinto BG. Automated detection of malaria pigment in white blood cells for the diagnosis of malaria in Portugal. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2001;64(5-6):290-292.
138. Zingman BS, Viner BL. Splenic complications in malaria: case report and review. Clin Infect Dis. 1993;16(2):223-232.
139. Urban BC, Hien TT, Day NP, Phu NH, Roberts R, Pongponratn E, et al. Fatal Plasmodium falciparum malaria causes specific patterns of splenic architectural disorganization. Infect Immun. 2005;73(4):1986-1994.
140. Newton PN, Chotivanich K, Chierakul W, Ruangveerayuth R, Teerapong P, Silamut K, et al. A comparison of the in vivo kinetics of Plasmodium falciparum ring-infected erythrocyte surface antigen-positive and -negative erythrocytes. Blood. 2001;98(2):450-457.
141. Sheagren JN, Tobie JE, Fox LM, Wolff SM. Reticuloendothelial system phagocytic function in naturally acquired human malaria. J Lab Clin Med. 1970;75(3):481-487.
142. Beale PJ, Cormack JD, Oldrey TB. Thrombocytopenia in malaria with immunoglobulin (IgM) changes. Br Med J. 1972;1(5796):345-349.
143. Skudowitz RB, Katz J, Lurie A, Levin J, Metz J. Mechanisms of thrombocytopenia in malignant tertian malaria. Br Med J. 1973;2(5865):515-518.
144. Giha HA, Elghazali G, A-Elqadir TM, A-Elbasit IE, Elbashir MI. Severe malaria in an unstable setting: clinical and laboratory correlates of cerebral malaria and severe malarial anemia and a paradigm for a simplified severity scoring. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2009;28(6):661-665.
145. Safeukui I, Correas JM, Brousse V, Hirt D, Deplaine G, Mule S, et al. Retention of Plasmodium falciparum ring-infected erythrocytes in the slow, open microcirculation of the human spleen. Blood. 2008;112(6):2520-2528.
146. Ozsoy MF, Oncul O, Pekkafali Z, Pahsa A, Yenen OS. Splenic complications in malaria: report of two cases from Turkey. J Med Microbiol. 2004;53(Pt 12):1255-1258.
147. Yagmur Y, Kara IH, Aldemir M, Buyukbayram H, Tacyildiz IH, Keles C. Spontaneous rupture of malarial spleen: two case reports and review of literature. Crit Care. 2000;4(5): 309-313.
148. Patel MI. Spontaneous rupture of a malarial spleen. Med J Aust. 1993;159(11-12):836-837.
149. Hamel CT, Blum J, Harder F, Kocher T. Nono perative treatment of splenic rupture in malaria tropica: review of literature and case report. Acta Trop. 2002;82(1):1-5.
150. Mokashi AJ, Shirahatti RG, Prabhu SK, Vagholkar KR. Pathological rupture of malarial spleen. J Postgrad Med. 1992;38(3):141-142.
151. Bidegain F, Berry A, Alvarez M, Verhille O, Huguet F, Brousset P, et al. Acute Plasmodium falciparum malaria following splenectomy for suspected lymphoma in 2 patients. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;40(11):e97-e100.
152. Allam MM, Alkadarou TA, Ahmed BG, Elkhair IS, Alansary EH, Ibrahim ME, et al. Hyper-reactive Malarial Splenomegaly (HMS) in malaria endemic area in Eastern Sudan. Acta Trop. 2008;105(2):196-199.