Axonal degeneration as a therapeutic target in the CNS

Cell and Tissue Research

Volumn 349, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 289-311

  Lingor, Paul ^a   Koch, Jan C ^a   Tönges, Lars ^a   Bähr, Mathias ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER GÖTTINGEN   (Germany)

Author keywords

Autophagy; Calcium; Neurodegeneration; Neurotrauma; Wallerian degeneration

Indexed keywords

6 NITRO 7 SULFAMOYLBENZO[F]QUINOXALINE 2,3 DIONE; [1 [(1 FORMYL 2 PHENYLETHYL)CARBAMOYL] 2 METHYLPROPYL]CARBAMIC ACID BENZYL ESTER; ALPHA SYNUCLEIN; AMILORIDE; AMLODIPINE; AMYLOID BETA PROTEIN; AMYLOID BETA PROTEIN ANTIBODY; ANTHRA[1,9 CD]PYRAZOL 6(2H) ONE; CALCINEURIN; CALCIUM; CALPAIN; CALPASTATIN; CILIARY NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR; DIHYDROPYRIDINE; DYNEIN ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATASE; ENZYME INHIBITOR; ERYTHROPOIETIN; FASUDIL; GLIAL CELL LINE DERIVED NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR; GROWTH FACTOR; KINESIN; NICOTINAMIDE NUCLEOTIDE ADENYLYLTRANSFERASE; PROTEASOME; PROTEIN KINASE; RAPAMYCIN; RILUZOLE; STRESS ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASE; TACROLIMUS; UBIQUITIN PROTEASOME SYSTEM; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

ACUTE NERVE FIBER DEGENERATION; ALLERGIC ENCEPHALOMYELITIS; ALZHEIMER DISEASE; AMYOTROPHIC LATERAL SCLEROSIS; AUTOPHAGY; AXONAL MEMBRANE INTEGRITY; CALCIUM TRANSPORT; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; CHRONIC INFLAMMATION; CHRONIC NERVE FIBER DEGENERATION; DEGENERATIVE DISEASE; DISEASE MODEL; DISORDERS OF MITOCHONDRIAL FUNCTIONS; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG TARGETING; ENZYME ACTIVATION; FOCAL NERVE FIBER DEGENERATION; GENE; GENE MUTATION; HUMAN; HUNTINGTON CHOREA; MEMBRANE PERMEABILITY; MOLECULAR DYNAMICS; MOLECULAR PATHOLOGY; MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS; NERVE DEGENERATION; NERVE FIBER DEGENERATION; NERVE FIBER TRANSPORT; NERVE MEMBRANE; NEUROPATHOLOGY; NEUROPROTECTION; NONHUMAN; PARKINSON DISEASE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN AGGREGATION; REVIEW; SPINAL CORD INJURY; SPINAL CORD LESION; TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY; WLDS GENE;

ANIMALS; AXONS; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DISEASES; HUMANS; MODELS, BIOLOGICAL; NERVE DEGENERATION;

ANIMALIA; WALLERIA;

EID: 84862766595     PISSN: 0302766X     EISSN: 14320878     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00441-012-1362-3     Document Type: Review

References (222)

1. Adalbert R, Nógrádi A, Szabó A, Coleman MP (2006) The slow Wallerian degeneration gene in vivo protects motor axons but not their cell bodies after avulsion and neonatal axotomy. Eur J Neurosci 24:2163-2168 (Pubitemid 44622337)
2. Adalbert R, Nogradi A, Babetto E, Janeckova L, Walker SA, Kerschensteiner M, Misgeld T, Coleman MP (2009) Severely dystrophic axons at amyloid plaques remain continuous and connected to viable cell bodies. Brain 132:402-416
3. Ai J, Liu E, Wang J, Chen Y, Yu J, Baker AJ (2007) Calpain inhibitor MDL-28170 reduces the functional and structural deterioration of corpus callosum following fluid percussion injury. J Neurotrauma 24:960-978 (Pubitemid 47015431)
4. Alim MA, Hossain MS, Arima K, Takeda K, Izumiyama Y, Nakamura M, Kaji H, Shinoda T, Hisanaga S, Ueda K (2002) Tubulin seeds alpha-synuclein fibril formation. J Biol Chem 277:2112-2117 (Pubitemid 34968795)
5. Alix JJP, Dolphin AC, Fern R (2008) Vesicular apparatus, including functional calcium channels, are present in developing rodent optic nerve axons and are required for normal node of Ranvier formation. J Physiol 586:4069-4089
6. Atwal JK, Pinkston-Gosse J, Syken J, Stawicki S, Wu Y, Shatz C, Tessier-Lavigne M (2008) PirB is a functional receptor for myelin inhibitors of axonal regeneration. Science 322:967-970
7. Avery MA, Sheehan AE, Kerr KS,Wang J, Freeman MR (2009) Wld S requires Nmnat1 enzymatic activity and N16-VCP interactions to suppress Wallerian degeneration. J Cell Biol 184:501-13
8. Babetto E, Beirowski B, Janeckova L, Brown R, Gilley J, Thomson D, Ribchester RR, Coleman MP (2010) Targeting NMNAT1 to axons and synapses transforms its neuroprotective potency in vivo. J Neurosci 30:13291-13304
9. Barrientos S, Martinez NW, Yoo S, Jara JS, Zamorano S, Hetz C, Twiss JL, Alvarez J, Court F (2011) Axonal degeneration is mediated by the mitochondrial permeability transition pore. J Neurosci 31:966-978
10. Bartus RT, Herzog CD, Chu Y, Wilson A, Brown L, Siffert J, Johnson EM, Olanow CW, Mufson EJ, Kordower JH (2011) Bioactivity of AAV2-neurturin gene therapy (CERE-120): differences between Parkinson's disease and nonhuman primate brains. Mov Disord 26:27-36
11. Beirowski B, Adalbert R, Wagner D, Grumme DS, Addicks K, Ribchester RR, Coleman MP (2005) The progressive nature of Wallerian degeneration in wild-type and slow Wallerian degeneration (WldS) nerves. BMC Neurosci 6:6
12. Beirowski B, Babetto E, Coleman MP, Martin KR (2008) The WldS gene delays axonal but not somatic degeneration in a rat glaucoma model. Eur J Neurosci 28:1166-1179
13. Beirowski B, Babetto E, Gilley J, Mazzola F, Conforti L, Janeckova L, Magni G, Ribchester RR, Coleman MP (2009) Non-nuclear Wld (S) determines its neuroprotective efficacy for axons and synapses in vivo. J Neurosci 29:653-668
14. Bennett GJ, Liu GK, Xiao WH, Jin HW, Siau C (2011) Terminal arbor degeneration-a novel lesion produced by the antineoplastic agent paclitaxel. Eur J Neurosci 33:1667-1676
15. Berger F, Lau C, Dahlmann M, Ziegler M (2005) Subcellular compartmentation and differential catalytic properties of the three human nicotinamide mononucleotide adenylyltransferase isoforms. J Biol Chem 280:36334-36341 (Pubitemid 41633907)
16. Bertrand E, Lechowicz W, Lewandowska E, Szpak GM, Dymecki J, Kosno-Kruszewska E, Wierzba-Bobrowicz T (2003) Degenerative axonal changes in the hippocampus and amygdala in Parkinson's disease. Folia Neuropathol 41:197-207 (Pubitemid 38185917)
17. Bilsland LG, Sahai E, Kelly G, Golding M, Greensmith L, Schiavo G (2010) Deficits in axonal transport precede ALS symptoms in vivo. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107:20523-20528
18. Boutajangout A, Authelet M, Blanchard V, Touchet N, Tremp G, Pradier L, Brion J-P (2004) Characterisation of cytoskeletal abnormalities in mice transgenic for wild-type human tau and familial Alzheimer's disease mutants of APP and presenilin-1. Neurobiol Dis 15:47-60 (Pubitemid 38134380)
19. Braak H, Tredici KD, Vos RAID, Steur ENHJ, Braak E (2003) Staging of brain pathology related to sporadic Parkinson's disease. Neurobiol Aging 24:197-211 (Pubitemid 36007810)
20. Bramlett HM, Dietrich WD (2007) Progressive damage after brain and spinal cord injury: pathomechanisms and treatment strategies. Prog Brain Res 161:125-141 (Pubitemid 47017402)
21. Burke RE (2010) Intracellular signalling pathways in dopamine cell death and axonal degeneration. Prog Brain Res 183:79-97
22. Calkins MJ, Reddy PH (2011) Amyloid beta impairs mitochondrial anterograde transport and degenerates synapses in Alzheimer's disease neurons. Biochim Biophys Acta 1812:507-513
23. Cavanagh JB (1964) The significance of the "dying back" process in experimental and human neurological disease. Int Rev Exp Pathol 3:219-267
24. Cavanagh JB (1979) The "dying back" process. A common denominator in many naturally occurring and toxic neuropathies. Arch Pathol Lab Med 103:659-664
25. Chang DTW, Honick AS, Reynolds IJ (2006) Mitochondrial trafficking to synapses in cultured primary cortical neurons. J Neurosci 26:7035-7045 (Pubitemid 44309871)
26. Cheng H-C, Burke RE (2010) The Wld(S) mutation delays anterograde, but not retrograde, axonal degeneration of the dopaminergic nigro-striatal pathway in vivo. J Neurochem 113:683-691
27. Cheng H-C, Kim SR, Oo TF, Kareva T, Yarygina O, Rzhetskaya M, Wang C, During M, Talloczy Z, Tanaka K, Komatsu M, Kobayashi K, Okano H, Kholodilov N, Burke RE (2011) Akt suppresses retrograde degeneration of dopaminergic axons by inhibition of macroautophagy. J Neurosci 31:2125-2135
28. Cho Y, Shi R, Ivanisevic A, Borgens RB (2010) Functional silica nanoparticle-mediated neuronal membrane sealing following traumatic spinal cord injury. J Neurosci Res 88:1433-1444
29. Chu CT, Plowey ED, Dagda RK, Hickey RW, Cherra SJ, Clark RSB (2009) Autophagy in neurite injury and neurodegeneration: in vitro and in vivo models. Methods Enzymol 453:217-249
30. Chung CY, Koprich JB, Siddiqi H, Isacson O (2009) Dynamic changes in presynaptic and axonal transport proteins combined with striatal neuroinflammation precede dopaminergic neuronal loss in a rat model of AAValpha-synucleinopathy. J Neurosci 29:3365-33673
31. Conforti L, Wilbrey A, Morreale G, Janeckova L, Beirowski B, Adalbert R, Mazzola F, Di Stefano M, Hartley R, Babetto E, Smith T, Gilley J, Billington RA, Genazzani AA, Ribchester RR, Magni G, Coleman M (2009) Wld S protein requires Nmnat activity and a short N-terminal sequence to protect axons in mice. J Cell Biol 184:491-500
32. Davis RJ (2000) Signal transduction by the JNK group of MAP kinases. Cell 103:239-252
33. Dawson HN, Cantillana V, Jansen M, Wang H, Vitek MP, Wilcock DM, Lynch JR, Laskowitz DT (2010) Loss of tau elicits axonal degeneration in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Neuroscience 169:516-531
34. De Vos KJ, Grierson AJ, Ackerley S, Miller CCJ (2008) Role of axonal transport in neurodegenerative diseases. Annu Rev Neurosci 31:151-173
35. Deckwerth TL, Johnson EM (1994) Neurites can remain viable after destruction of the neuronal soma by programmed cell death (apoptosis). Dev Biol 165:63-72 (Pubitemid 24306102)
36. Decressac M, Ulusoy A, Mattsson B, Georgievska B, Romero-Ramos M, Kirik D, Björklund A (2011) GDNF fails to exert neuroprotection in a rat {alpha}-synuclein model of Parkinson's disease. Brain 134:2302-2311
37. Dickson TC, King CE, McCormack GH, Vickers JC (1999) Neurochemical diversity of dystrophic neurites in the early and late stages of Alzheimer's disease. Exp Neurol 156:100-110 (Pubitemid 29152987)
38. Duda JE, Giasson BI, Lee VM-Y, Trojanowski JQ (2006) Is the initial insult in Parkinson's disease and dementia with Lewy bodies a neuritic dystrophy? Ann N Y Acad Sci 991:295-297
39. Dziedzic T, Metz I, Dallenga T, König FB, Müller S, Stadelmann C, Brück W (2010) Wallerian degeneration: a major component of early axonal pathology in multiple sclerosis. Brain Pathol 20:976-985
40. Ebneth A, Godemann R, Stamer K, Illenberger S, Trinczek B, Mandelkow E (1998) Overexpression of tau protein inhibits kinesin-dependent trafficking of vesicles, mitochondria, and endoplasmic reticulum: implications for Alzheimer's disease. J Cell Biol 143:777-794 (Pubitemid 28512571)
41. Egami Y, Kiryu-Seo S, Yoshimori T, Kiyama H (2005) Induced expressions of Rab24 GTPase and LC3 in nerve-injured motor neurons. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 337:1206-1213 (Pubitemid 41505252)
42. Emre M, Geula C, Ransil BJ, Mesulam MM (1992) The acute neurotoxicity and effects upon cholinergic axons of intracerebrally injected beta-amyloid in the rat brain. Neurobiol Aging 13:553-559
43. Erlich S, Alexandrovich A, Shohami E, Pinkas-Kramarski R (2007) Rapamycin is a neuroprotective treatment for traumatic brain injury. Neurobiol Dis 26:86-93 (Pubitemid 46436489)
44. Falzone TL, Stokin GB, Lillo C, Rodrigues EM, Westerman EL, Williams DS, Goldstein LSB (2009) Axonal stress kinase activation and tau misbehavior induced by kinesin-1 transport defects. J Neurosci 29:5758-5767
45. Ferguson B, Matyszak MK, Esiri MM, Perry VH (1997) Axonal damage in acute multiple sclerosis lesions. Brain 120:393-399 (Pubitemid 27153632)
46. Fern R, Ransom BR, Waxman SG (1995) Voltage-gated calcium channels in CNS white matter: role in anoxic injury. J Neurophysiol 74:369-377
47. Fischer LR, Glass JD (2007) Axonal degeneration in motor neuron disease. Neurodegener Dis 4:431-442 (Pubitemid 47557285)
48. Fischer LR, Culver DG, Tennant P, Davis AA, Wang M, Castellano- Sanchez A, Khan J, Polak MA, Glass JD (2004) Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis is a distal axonopathy: evidence in mice and man. Exp Neurol 185:232-240 (Pubitemid 38084849)
49. Fox SH, Brotchie JM (2010) The MPTP-lesioned non-human primate models of Parkinson's disease. Past, present, and future. Prog Brain Res 184:133-157
50. Fox RJ, Cronin T, Lin J,Wang X, Sakaie K, Ontaneda D, Mahmoud SY, Lowe MJ, Phillips MD (2011) Measuring myelin repair and axonal loss with diffusion tensor imaging. Am J Neuroradiol 32:85-91
51. Frautschy SA, BairdA, ColeGM(1991) Effects of injected Alzheimer beta-amyloid cores in rat brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 88:8362-8366 (Pubitemid 21915356)
52. Gadjanski I, Boretius S, Williams SK, Lingor P, Knöferle J, Sättler MB, Fairless R, Hochmeister S, Süss KW, Michaelis T, Frahm J, Storch MK, Bähr M, Diem R (2009) Role of N-Type voltage-dependent calcium channels in autoimmune optic neuritis. Ann Neurol 66:81-93
53. Gallo G (2004) Myosin II activity is required for severing-induced axon retraction in vitro. Exp Neurol 189:112-121
54. Ge Y (2006) Seeing is believing: in vivo evolution of multiple sclerosis pathology with magnetic resonance. Top Magn Reson Imaging 17:295-306
55. George EB, Glass JD, Griffin JW (1995) Axotomy-induced axonal degeneration influx through ion-specific channels. J Neurosci 75:6445-6452
56. Gerard M, Deleersnijder A, Daniëls V, Schreurs S, Munck S, Reumers V, Pottel H, Engelborghs Y, Van den Haute C, Taymans J-M, Debyser Z, Baekelandt V (2010) Inhibition of FK506 binding proteins reduces alpha-synuclein aggregation and Parkinson's disease-like pathology. J Neurosci 30:2454-2463
57. Gerdts J, Sasaki Y, Vohra B, Marasa J, Milbrandt J (2011) Image-based screening identifies novel roles for IKK and GSK3 in axonal degeneration. J Biol Chem 286:28011-28018
58. Gill SS, Patel NK, Hotton GR, O Sullivan K, McCarter R, Bunnage M, Brooks DJ, Svendsen CN, Heywood P (2003) Direct brain infusion of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor in Parkinson disease. Nat Med 9:589-595 (Pubitemid 36597106)
59. Gilley J, Coleman MP (2010) Endogenous Nmnat2 is an essential survival factor for maintenance of healthy axons.PLoS Biol 8: e1000300
60. Glass JD, Brushart TM, George EB, Griffin JW (1993) Prolonged survival of transected nerve fibres in C57BL/Ola mice is an intrinsic characteristic of the axon. J Neurocytol 22:311-321 (Pubitemid 23162784)
61. Goldberg JL, Vargas ME, Wang JT, Mandemakers W, Oster SF, Sretavan DW, Barres B (2004) An oligodendrocyte lineage-specific semaphorin, Sema5A, inhibits axon growth by retinal ganglion cells. J Neurosci 24:4989-4999 (Pubitemid 38697832)
62. Goldshmit Y, McLenachan S, Turnley A (2006) Roles of Eph receptors and ephrins in the normal and damaged adult CNS. Brain Res Rev 52:327-345 (Pubitemid 44291808)
63. Gould TW, Buss RR, Vinsant S, Prevette D, Sun W, Knudson CM, Milligan CE, Oppenheim RW (2006) Complete dissociation of motor neuron death from motor dysfunction by Bax deletion in a mouse model of ALS. J Neurosci 26:8774-8786 (Pubitemid 44319413)
64. Grunfeld JF, Barhum Y, Blondheim N, Rabey J-M, Melamed E, Offen D (2007) Erythropoietin delays disease onset in an amyotrophic lateral sclerosis model. Exp Neurol 204:260-263 (Pubitemid 46350729)
65. Gurney ME, Pu H, Chiu AY, Dal Canto MC, Polchow CY, Alexander DD, Caliendo J, Hentati A, Kwon YW, Deng HX (1994) Motor neuron degeneration in mice that express a human Cu,Zn super-oxide dismutase mutation. Science 264:1772-1775 (Pubitemid 24227760)
66. Hafezparast M (2003) Mutations in dynein link motor neuron degeneration to defects in retrograde transport. Science 300:808-812
67. Hasbani DM, O'Malley KL (2006) Wld(S) mice are protected against the Parkinsonian mimetic MPTP. Exp Neurol 202:93-99 (Pubitemid 44344251)
68. Hatakeyama S, Yada M, Matsumoto M, Ishida N, Nakayama KI (2001) U box proteins as a new family of ubiquitin-protein ligases.J Biol Chem 276:33111-33120
69. Hirano A (1996) Neuropathology of ALS: an overview. Neurology 47: S63-S66
70. Hoopfer ED, McLaughlin T, Watts RJ, Schuldiner O, O'Leary DDM, Luo L (2006) Wlds protection distinguishes axon degeneration following injury from naturally occurring developmental pruning. Neuron 50:883-895 (Pubitemid 43850690)
71. Howell GR, Libby RT, Jakobs TC, Smith RS, Phalan FC, Barter JW, Barbay JM, Marchant JK, Mahesh N, Porciatti V, Whitmore AV, Masland RH, John SWM (2007) Axons of retinal ganglion cells are insulted in the optic nerve early in DBA/2 J glaucoma. J Cell Biol 179:1523-1537
72. Huang J, Friedland RP, Auchus AP (2007) Diffusion tensor imaging of normal-appearing white matter in mild cognitive impairment and early Alzheimer disease: preliminary evidence of axonal degeneration in the temporal lobe. Am J Neuroradiol 28:1943-1948 (Pubitemid 350174740)
73. Hunot S, Vila M, Teismann P, Davis RJ, Hirsch EC, Przedborski S, Rakic P, Flavell RA (2004) JNK-mediated induction of cyclooxygenase 2 is required for neurodegeneration in a mouse model of Parkinson's disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101:665-670 (Pubitemid 38084694)
74. Ip YT, Davis RJ (1998) Signal transduction by the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK)-from inflammation to development. Curr Opin Cell Biol 10:205-219 (Pubitemid 28174763)
75. Iseki E, Marui W, Kosaka K, Akiyama H, Ueda K, Iwatsubo T (1998) Degenerative terminals of the perforant pathway are human alpha-synuclein- immunoreactive in the hippocampus of patients with diffuse Lewy body disease. Neurosci Lett 258:81-84 (Pubitemid 28566179)
76. Jaeger PA, Wyss-Coray T (2009) All-you-can-eat: autophagy in neurodegeneration and neuroprotection. Mol Neurodegener 4:16
77. Jawhar S, Trawicka A, Jenneckens C, Bayer TA, Wirths O (2010) Motor deficits, neuron loss, and reduced anxiety coinciding with axonal degeneration and intraneuronal Abeta aggregation in the 5XFAD mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 33(1):e29-40
78. Jensen PH, Hager H, Nielsen MS, Hojrup P, Gliemann J, Jakes R (1999) Alpha-synuclein binds to Tau and stimulates the protein kinase A-catalyzed tau phosphorylation of serine residues 262 and 356. J Biol Chem 274:25481-25489 (Pubitemid 29418572)
79. Jiang Q, Stys PK (2000) Calpain inhibitors confer biochemical, but not electrophysiological, protection against anoxia in rat optic nerves. J Neurochem 74:2101-2107 (Pubitemid 30217667)
80. Kampfl A, Posmantur R, Nixon R, Grynspan F, Zhao X, Liu SJ, Newcomb JK, Clifton GL, Hayes RL (1996) Mu-calpain activation and calpain-mediated cytoskeletal proteolysis following traumatic brain injury. J Neurochem 67:1575-1583 (Pubitemid 26314215)
81. Kanazawa T, Uchihara T, Takahashi A, Nakamura A, Orimo S, Mizusawa H (2008) Three-layered structure shared between Lewy bodies and Lewy neurites-three-dimensional reconstruction of triple-labeled sections. Brain Pathol 18:415-422 (Pubitemid 351782850)
82. Kaneko S, Wang J, Kaneko M, Yiu G, Hurrell JM, Chitnis T, Khoury SJ, He Z (2006) Protecting axonal degeneration by increasing nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide levels in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis models. J Neurosci 26:9794-9804 (Pubitemid 44427718)
83. Karnezis T, Mandemakers W, McQualter JL, Zheng B, Ho PP, Jordan KA, Murray BM, Barres B, Tessier-Lavigne M, Bernard CCA (2004) The neurite outgrowth inhibitor Nogo A is involved in autoimmune-mediated demyelination. Nat Neurosci 7:736-744 (Pubitemid 38859058)
84. Kerschensteiner M, Schwab ME, Lichtman JW, Misgeld T (2005) In vivo imaging of axonal degeneration and regeneration in the injured spinal cord. Nat Med 11:572-577 (Pubitemid 40685982)
85. Keswani SC, Buldanlioglu U, Fischer A, Reed N, Polley M, Liang H, Zhou C, Jack C, Leitz GJ, Hoke A (2004) A novel endogenous erythropoietin mediated pathway prevents axonal degeneration. Ann Neurol 56:815-826 (Pubitemid 39578445)
86. Keswani SC, Bosch-Marcé M, Reed N, Fischer A, Semenza GL, Höke A (2011) Nitric oxide prevents axonal degeneration by inducing HIF-1-dependent expression of erythropoietin. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108:4986-4990
87. Kilinc D, Gallo G, Barbee K (2009) Mechanical membrane injury induces axonal beading through localized activation of calpain. Exp Neurol 219:553-561
88. Kim JH, Wu T-H, Budde MD, Lee J-M, Song S-K (2011) Noninvasive detection of brainstem and spinal cord axonal degeneration in an amyotrophic lateral sclerosis mouse model. NMR Biomed 24:163-169
89. Kim-Han JS, Antenor-Dorsey JA, O'Malley KL (2011) The Parkinsonian mimetic, MPP+, specifically impairs mitochondrial transport in dopamine axons. J Neurosci 31:7212-7221
90. King AE, Dickson TC, Blizzard CA, Woodhouse A, Foster SS, Chung RS, Vickers JC (2011) Neuron-glia interactions underlie ALS-like axonal cytoskeletal pathology. Neurobiol Aging 32:459-469
91. Kirik D, Rosenblad C, Björklund A (2000) Preservation of a functional nigrostriatal dopamine pathway by GDNF in the intrastriatal 6-OHDA lesion model depends on the site of administration of the trophic factor. Eur J Neurosci 12:3871-3882
92. Kish SJ, Shannak K, Hornykiewicz O (1988) Uneven pattern of dopamine loss in the striatum of patients with idiopathic Parkinson's disease. Pathophysiologic and clinical implications. N Engl J Med 318:876-880 (Pubitemid 18090271)
93. Knöferle J, Koch JC, Ostendorf T, Michel U, Planchamp V, Vutova P, Tönges L, Stadelmann C, Brück W, Bähr M, Lingor P (2010) Mechanisms of acute axonal degeneration in the optic nerve in vivo. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107:6064-6069
94. Koch JC, Knöferle J, Tönges L, Ostendorf T, Bähr M, Lingor P (2010) Acute axonal degeneration in vivo is attenuated by inhibition of autophagy in a calcium-dependent manner. Autophagy (in press)
95. Koike M, Shibata M, Tadakoshi M, Gotoh K, Komatsu M, Waguri S, Kawahara N, Kuida K, Nagata S, Kominami E, Tanaka K, Uchiyama Y (2008) Inhibition of autophagy prevents hippocampal pyramidal neuron death after hypoxic-ischemic injury. Am J Pathol 172:454-469 (Pubitemid 351282032)
96. Kowall NW, Beal MF, Busciglio J, Duffy LK, Yankner BA (1991) An in vivo model for the neurodegenerative effects of beta amyloid and protection by substance P. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 88:7247-7251 (Pubitemid 21915127)
97. Kurnellas MP, Nicot A, Shull GE, Elkabes S (2005) Plasma membrane calcium ATPase deficiency causes neuronal pathology in the spinal cord: a potential mechanism for neurodegeneration in multiple sclerosis and spinal cord injury. FASEB J 19:298-300 (Pubitemid 40189288)
98. Kyriakis JM, Avruch J (1996) Sounding the alarm: protein kinase cascades activated by stress and inflammation. J Biol Chem 271:24313-24316 (Pubitemid 26333156)
99. Lach B, Grimes D, Benoit B, Minkiewicz-Janda A (1992) Caudate nucleus pathology in Parkinson's disease: ultrastructural and biochemical findings in biopsy material. Acta Neuropathol 83:352-360
100. Laser H, Mack TGA, Wagner D, Coleman MP (2003) Proteasome inhibition arrests neurite outgrowth and causes "dying-back" degeneration in primary culture. J Neurosci Res 74:906-916 (Pubitemid 37490424)
101. Li H, Li SH, Yu ZX, Shelbourne P, Li XJ (2001) Huntingtin aggregate-associated axonal degeneration is an early pathological event in Huntington's disease mice. J Neurosci 21:8473-81 (Pubitemid 33051446)
102. Li Y, Liu W, Oo TF, Wang L, Tang Y, Jackson-Lewis V, Zhou C, Geghman K, Bogdanov M, Przedborski S, Beal MF, Burke RE, Li C (2009) Mutant LRRK2(R1441G) BAC transgenic mice recapitulate cardinal features of Parkinson's disease. Nat Neurosci 12:826-828
103. Lin C-H, Tsai P-I, Wu R-M, Chien C-T (2010) LRRK2 G2019S mutation induces dendrite degeneration through mislocalization and phosphorylation of tau by recruiting autoactivated GSK3β. J Neurosci 30:13138-13149
104. Lingor P, Tönges L, Pieper N, Bermel C, Barski E, Planchamp V, Bähr M (2008) ROCK inhibition and CNTF interact on intrinsic signalling pathways and differentially regulate survival and regeneration in retinal ganglion cells. Brain 131:250-263
105. Liu R, Barkhordarian H, Emadi S, Park CB, Sierks MR (2005) Trehalose differentially inhibits aggregation and neurotoxicity of betaamyloid 40 and 42. Neurobiol Dis 20:74-81 (Pubitemid 41219204)
106. Liu Y, Lee MK, James MM, Price DL, Borchelt DR, Troncoso JC, Oh ES (2011) Passive (amyloid-β) immunotherapy attenuates monoaminergic axonal degeneration in the AßPPswe/PS1dE9 mice. J Alzheimer Dis 23:271-279
107. Lo Bianco C, Déglon N, PralongW, Aebischer P (2004) Lentiviral nigral delivery of GDNF does not prevent neurodegeneration in a genetic rat model of Parkinson's disease. Neurobiol Dis 17:283-289 (Pubitemid 39345783)
108. Lunn ER, Perry VH, Brown MC, Rosen H, Gordon S (1989) Absence of Wallerian degeneration does not hinder regeneration in peripheral nerve. Eur J Neurosci 1:27-33 (Pubitemid 19142026)
109. Luo L (2000) Rho GTPases in neuronal morphogenesis. Nat Rev Neurosci 1:173-180
110. Luo L, O'Leary DD (2005) Axon retraction and degeneration in development and disease. Annu Rev Neurosci 28:127-156 (Pubitemid 41098902)
111. MacDonald JM, Beach MG, Porpiglia E, Sheehan AE, Watts RJ, Freeman MR (2006) The Drosophila cell corpse engulfment receptor Draper mediates glial clearance of severed axons. Neuron 50:869-881 (Pubitemid 43850686)
112. Mack TG, Reiner M, Beirowski B, Mi W, Emanuelli M, Wagner D, Thomson D, Gillingwater T, Court F, Conforti L, Fernando FS, Tarlton A, Andressen C, Addicks K, Magni G, Ribchester RR, Macleod D, Dowman J, Hammond R, Leete T, Inoue K, Abeliovich A (2006) The familial Parkinsonism gene LRRK2 regulates neurite process morphology. Neuron 52:587-593 (Pubitemid 44781171)
113. Mahad DJ, Ziabreva I, Campbell G, Lax N, White K, Hanson PS, Lassmann H, Turnbull DM (2009) Mitochondrial changes within axons in multiple sclerosis. Brain 132:1161-1174
114. Mandel RJ (1997) Midbrain injection of recombinant adeno-associated virus encoding rat glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor protects nigral neurons in a progressive 6-hydroxydopamine-induced degeneration model of Parkinson's disease in rats. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94:14083-14088
115. McDonald CL, Bandtlow C, Reindl M (2011) Targeting the Nogo receptor complex in diseases of the central nervous system. Curr Med Chem 18:234-244
116. McIntosh TK, Smith DH, Meaney DF, Kotapka MJ, Gennarelli TA, Graham DI (1996) Neuropathological sequelae of traumatic brain injury: relationship to neurochemical and biomechanical mechanisms. Lab Invest 74:315-342 (Pubitemid 26072076)
117. Meyer zu Horste G, Miesbach TA, Muller JI, Fledrich R, Stassart RM, Kieseier BC, Coleman MP, Sereda MW (2011) The Wlds transgene reduces axon loss in a Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease 1A rat model and nicotinamide delays post-traumatic axonal degeneration. Neurobiol Dis 42:1-8
118. Meythaler JM, Peduzzi JD, Eleftheriou E, Novack TA (2001) Current concepts: diffuse axonal injury-associated traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 82:1461-1471 (Pubitemid 32952371)
119. Mi W, Beirowski B, Gillingwater TH, Adalbert R, Wagner D, Grumme D, Osaka H, Conforti L, Arnhold S, Addicks K, Wada K, Ribchester RR, Coleman MP (2005) The slow Wallerian degeneration gene, WldS, inhibits axonal spheroid pathology in gracile axonal dystrophy mice. Brain 128:405-416 (Pubitemid 40222609)
120. Miller BR, Press C, Daniels RW, Sasaki Y, Milbrandt J, DiAntonio A (2009) A dual leucine kinase-dependent axon self-destruction program promotes Wallerian degeneration. Nat Neurosci 12:387-389
121. Misgeld T (2011) Lost in elimination: mechanisms of axonal loss. e-Neuroforum 2:21-34
122. Misgeld T, Kerschensteiner M (2006) In vivo imaging of the diseased nervous system. Nat Rev Neurosci 7:449-463 (Pubitemid 44012285)
123. Morfini G, Pigino G, Opalach K, Serulle Y, Moreira JE, Sugimori M, Llinás RR, Brady ST (2007) 1-Methyl-4-phenylpyridinium affects fast axonal transport by activation of caspase and protein kinase C. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104:2442-2447 (Pubitemid 46391416)
124. Morfini GA, Burns M, Binder LI, Kanaan NM, LaPointe N, Bosco DA, Brown RH, Brown H, Tiwari A, Hayward L, Edgar J, Nave K-A, Garberrn J, Atagi Y, Song Y, Pigino G, Brady ST (2009) Axonal transport defects in neurodegenerative diseases. J Neurosci 29:12776-12786
125. Nath S, Goodwin J, Engelborghs Y, Pountney DL (2011) Raised calcium promotes α-synuclein aggregate formation. Mol Cell Neurosci 46:516-526
126. Nicot A, Ratnakar PV, Ron Y, Chen C-C, Elkabes S (2003) Regulation of gene expression in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis indicates early neuronal dysfunction. Brain 126:398-412 (Pubitemid 36172744)
127. Nihei K, McKee AC, Kowall NW (1993) Patterns of neuronal degeneration in the motor cortex of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis patients. Acta Neuropathol 86:55-64 (Pubitemid 23249074)
128. Nikić I, Merkler D, Sorbara C, Brinkoetter M, Kreutzfeldt M, Bareyre FM, Brück W, Bishop D, Misgeld T, Kerschensteiner M (2011) A reversible form of axon damage in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and multiple sclerosis. Nat Med 17:495-499
129. 2+ release in rat optic nerve during in vitro chemical ischemia. J Neurosci 25:9960-9967
130. Oakley H, Cole SL, Logan S, Maus E, Shao P, Craft J, Guillozet- Bongaarts A, Ohno M, Disterhoft J, Van Eldik L, Berry R, Vassar R (2006) Intraneuronal beta-amyloid aggregates, neurodegeneration, and neuron loss in transgenic mice with five familial Alzheimer's disease mutations: potential factors in amyloid plaque formation. J Neurosci 26:10129-10140 (Pubitemid 44527407)
131. Onorato M, Mulvihill P, Connolly J, Galloway P, Whitehouse P, Perry G (1989) Alteration of neuritic cytoarchitecture in Alzheimer disease. Prog Clin Biol Res 317:781-789
132. Orimo S, Uchihara T, Nakamura A, Mori F, Kakita A, Wakabayashi K, Takahashi H (2008) Axonal alpha-synuclein aggregates herald centripetal degeneration of cardiac sympathetic nerve in Parkinson's disease. Brain 131:642-50 (Pubitemid 351294710)
133. 2+ channel activation of ryanodine receptors. Neuron 40:53-63
134. Ozdinler PH, Benn S, Yamamoto TH, Güzel M, Brown RH, Macklis JD (2011) Corticospinal motor neurons and related subcerebral projection neurons undergo early and specific neurodegeneration in hSOD1G93A transgenic ALS mice. J Neurosci 31:4166-4177
135. Patterson KR, Ward SM, Combs B, Voss K, Kanaan NM, Morfini GA, Brady ST, Gamblin TC, Binder LI (2011) Heat shock protein 70 prevents both tau aggregation and the inhibitory effects of pre-existing tau aggregates on fast axonal transport. Biochemistry 50:10300-10310
136. Pettigrew LC, Holtz ML, Craddock SD, Minger SL, Hall N, Geddes JW (1996) Microtubular proteolysis in focal cerebral ischemia. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 16:1189-1202 (Pubitemid 26365370)
137. Pettus EH, Povlishock JT (1996) Characterization of a distinct set of intra-axonal ultrastructural changes associated with traumatically induced alteration in axolemmal permeability. Brain Res 722:1-11 (Pubitemid 26199353)
138. Pettus EH, Christman CW, Giebel ML, Povlishock JT (1994) Traumatically induced altered membrane permeability: its relationship to traumatically induced reactive axonal change. J Neurotrauma 11:507-522 (Pubitemid 24347274)
139. Pigino G, Morfini G, Atagi Y, Deshpande A, Yu C, Jungbauer L, LaDu M, Busciglio J, Brady S (2009) Disruption of fast axonal transport is a pathogenic mechanism for intraneuronal amyloid beta. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106:5907-5912
140. Pineda AAM, Minohara M, Kawamura N, Matsushita T, Yamasaki R, Sun X, Piao H, Shimokawa H, J-ichi K (2011) Preventive and therapeutic effects of the selective Rho-kinase inhibitor fasudil on experimental autoimmune neuritis. J Neurol Sci 306:115-120
141. Plowey ED, Cherra SJ, Liu Y-J, Chu CT (2008) Role of autophagy in G2019S-LRRK2-associated neurite shortening in differentiated SH-SY5Y cells. J Neurochem 105:1048-1056 (Pubitemid 351565713)
142. Podlisny MB, Stephenson DT, Frosch MP, Tolan DR, Lieberburg I, Clemens JA, Selkoe DJ (1993) Microinjection of synthetic amyloid beta-protein in monkey cerebral cortex fails to produce acute neurotoxicity. Am J Pathol 142:17-24 (Pubitemid 23026905)
143. Probst A, Herzig MC, Mistl C, Ipsen S, Tolnay M (2001) Perisomatic granules (non-plaque dystrophic dendrites) of hippocampal CA1 neurons in Alzheimer's disease and Pick's disease: a lesion distinct from granulovacuolar degeneration. Acta Neuropathol 102:636-644 (Pubitemid 33061795)
144. Przedborski S (2004) Molecular targets for neuroprotection. Amyotroph Lateral Scler Other Motor Neuron Disord 5 Suppl 1:14-18
145. Pun S, Santos AF, Saxena S, Xu L, Caroni P (2006) Selective vulnerability and pruning of phasic motoneuron axons in motoneuron disease alleviated by CNTF. Nat Neurosci 9:408-419 (Pubitemid 43290971)
146. Raff MC, Whitmore AV, Finn JT (2002) Axonal self-destruction and neurodegeneration. Science 296:868-871
147. Rao MV, Nixon RA (2003) Defective neurofilament transport in mouse models of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: a review. Neurochem Res 28:1041-1047 (Pubitemid 36576201)
148. Ravikumar B, Vacher C, Berger Z, Davies JE, Luo S, Oroz LG, Scaravilli F, Easton DF, Duden R, O'Kane CJ, Rubinsztein DC (2004) Inhibition of mTOR induces autophagy and reduces toxicity of polyglutamine expansions in fly and mouse models of Huntington disease. Nat Genet 36:585-595 (Pubitemid 38715985)
149. Ravikumar B, Acevedo-Arozena A, Imarisio S, Berger Z, Vacher C, O'Kane CJ, Brown SDM, Rubinsztein DC (2005) Dynein mutations impair autophagic clearance of aggregate-prone proteins. Nat Genet 37:771-776 (Pubitemid 41754897)
150. Reitmeir R, Kilic E, Kilic U, Bacigaluppi M, ElAli A, Salani G, Pluchino S, Gassmann M, Hermann DM (2011) Post-acute delivery of erythropoietin induces stroke recovery by promoting perilesional tissue remodelling and contralesional pyramidal tract plasticity. Brain 134:84-99
151. Reyes NA, Fisher JK, Austgen K, VandenBerg S, Huang EJ, Oakes SA (2010) Blocking the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway preserves motor neuron viability and function in a mouse model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. J Clin Invest 120:3673-3679
152. Ries V, Silva RM, Oo TF, Cheng H-C, Rzhetskaya M, Kholodilov N, Flavell RA, Kuan C-Y, Rakic P, Burke RE (2008) JNK2 and JNK3 combined are essential for apoptosis in dopamine neurons of the substantia nigra, but are not required for axon degeneration. J Neurochem 107:1578-1588
153. Ritz B, Rhodes SL, Qian L, Schernhammer E, Olsen JH, Friis S (2010) L-type calcium channel blockers and Parkinson disease in Denmark. Ann Neurol 67:600-606
154. Rowland LP, Shneider NA (2001) Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. N Eng J Med 344:1688-1700 (Pubitemid 32479968)
155. Rowland JW, Hawryluk GWJ, Kwon B, Fehlings MG (2008) Current status of acute spinal cord injury pathophysiology and emerging therapies: promise on the horizon. Neurosurg Focus 25:E2
156. Saatman KE, Creed J, Raghupathi R (2010) Calpain as a therapeutic target in traumatic brain injury. Neurotherapeutics 7:31-42
157. Sadasivan S, Dunn WA, Hayes RL, Wang KKW (2008) Changes in autophagy proteins in a rat model of controlled cortical impact induced brain injury. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 373:478-481
158. Sagot Y, Dubois-Dauphin M, Tan SA, de Bilbao F, Aebischer P, Martinou JC, Kato AC (1995) Bcl-2 overexpression prevents motoneuron cell body loss but not axonal degeneration in a mouse model of a neurodegenerative disease. J Neurosci 15:7727-7733
159. Saha AR, Hill J, Utton MA, Asuni AA, Ackerley S, Grierson AJ, Miller CC, Davies AM, Buchman VL, Anderton BH, Hanger DP (2004) Parkinson's disease alpha-synuclein mutations exhibit defective axonal transport in cultured neurons. J Cell Sci 117:1017-1024 (Pubitemid 38456084)
160. Sasaki Y, Vohra BPS, Baloh RH, Milbrandt J (2009a) Transgenic mice expressing the Nmnat1 protein manifest robust delay in axonal degeneration in vivo. J Neurosci 29:6526-6534
161. Sasaki Y, Vohra BPS, Lund FE, Milbrandt J (2009b) Nicotinamide mononucleotide adenylyl transferase-mediated axonal protection requires enzymatic activity but not increased levels of neuronal nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide. J Neurosci 29:5525-5535
162. Satake W, Nakabayashi Y, Mizuta I, Hirota Y, Ito C, Kubo M, Kawaguchi T, Tsunoda T, Watanabe M, Takeda A, Tomiyama H, Nakashima K, Hasegawa K, Obata F, Yoshikawa T, Kawakami H, Sakoda S, Yamamoto M, Hattori N, Murata M, Nakamura Y, Toda T (2009) Genome-wide association study identifies common variants at four loci as genetic risk factors for Parkinson's disease. Nat Genet 41:1303-1307
163. Seidel K, Dunnen den WFA, Schultz C, Paulson H, Frank S, Vos RA de, Brunt ER, Deller T, Kampinga HH, Rüb U (2010a) Axonal inclusions in spinocerebellar ataxia type 3. Acta Neuropathol 120:449-460
164. Seidel K, Schöls L, Nuber S, Petrasch-Parwez E, Gierga K, Wszolek Z, Dickson D, Gai WP, Bornemann A, Riess O, Rami A, Dunnen WFA den, Deller T, Rüb U, Krüger R (2010b) First appraisal of brain pathology owing to A30P mutant alpha-synuclein. Ann Neurol 67:684-689
165. Sendtner M, Kreutzberg GW, Thoenen H (1990) Ciliary neurotrophic factor prevents the degeneration of motor neurons after axotomy. Nature 345:440-441
166. Shi R, Borgens RB (2000) Anatomical repair of nerve membranes in crushed mammalian spinal cord with polyethylene glycol. J Neurocytol 29:633-643
167. Shi P, Gal J, Kwinter DM, Liu X, Zhu H (2010) Mitochondrial dysfunction in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Biochim Biophys Acta 1802:45-51
168. Shirendeb UP, Calkins M, Manczak M, Anekonda V, Dufour B,McBride JL, Mao P, Reddy PH (2011) Mutant huntingtin's interaction with mitochondrial protein Drp1 impairs mitochondrial biogenesis and causes defective axonal transport and synaptic degeneration in Huntington's disease. Hum Mol Genet 21:406-420
169. Siebert H, Kahle PJ, Kramer ML, Isik T, Schlüter OM, Schulz-Schaeffer WJ, Brück W (2010) Over-expression of alphasynuclein in the nervous system enhances axonal degeneration after peripheral nerve lesion in a transgenic mouse strain. J Neurochem 114:1007-1018
170. Sievers C, Platt N, Perry VH, Coleman MP, Conforti L (2003) Neurites undergoing Wallerian degeneration show an apoptotic-like process with annexin V positive staining and loss of mitochondrial membrane potential. Neurosci Res 46:161-169 (Pubitemid 36593279)
171. Simons JP, Al-Shawi R, Minogue S, Waugh MG, Wiedemann C, Evangelou S, Loesch A, Sihra TS, King R, Warner TT, Hsuan JJ (2009) Loss of phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase 2alpha activity causes late onset degeneration of spinal cord axons. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106:11535-11539
172. Simón-Sánchez J, Schulte C, Bras JM, Sharma M, Gibbs JR, Berg D et al (2009) Genome-wide association study reveals genetic risk underlying Parkinson's disease. Nat Genet 41:1308-1312
173. Smith KDB, Kallhoff V, Zheng H, Pautler RG (2007) In vivo axonal transport rates decrease in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Neuroimage 35:1401-1408 (Pubitemid 46561352)
174. Snow AD, Sekiguchi R, Nochlin D, Fraser P, Kimata K, Mizutani A, Arai M, Schreier WA, Morgan DG (1994) An important role of heparan sulfate proteoglycan (Perlecan) in a model system for the deposition and persistence of fibrillar A beta-amyloid in rat brain. Neuron 12:219-234 (Pubitemid 24044400)
175. Sobue G, Sahashi K, Takahashi A, Matsuoka Y, Muroga T, Sobue I (1983) Degenerating compartment and functioning compartment of motor neurons in ALS: possible process of motor neuron loss. Neurology 33:654-657 (Pubitemid 13080464)
176. Song M-S, Saavedra L, Chaves EIP de (2006) Apoptosis is secondary to non-apoptotic axonal degeneration in neurons exposed to Abeta in distal axons. Neurobiol Aging 27:1224-1238 (Pubitemid 44088575)
177. Staal JA, Dickson TC, Gasperini R, Liu Y, Foa L, Vickers JC (2010) Initial calcium release from intracellular stores followed by calcium dysregulation is linked to secondary axotomy following transient axonal stretch injury. J Neurochem 112:1147-1155
178. Stagi M, Gorlovoy P, Larionov S, Takahashi K, Neumann H (2006) Unloading kinesin transported cargoes from the tubulin track via the inflammatory c-Jun N-terminal kinase pathway. FASEB J 20:2573-2575
179. Stamer K, Vogel R, Thies E, Mandelkow E, Mandelkow E-M (2002) Tau blocks traffic of organelles, neurofilaments, and APP vesicles in neurons and enhances oxidative stress. J Cell Biol 156:1051-1063 (Pubitemid 34839854)
180. Stirling DP, Stys PK (2010) Mechanisms of axonal injury: internodal nanocomplexes and calcium deregulation. Trends Mol Med 16:160-170
181. Stokin GB, Lillo C, Falzone TL, Brusch RG, Rockenstein E, Mount SL, Raman R, Davies P, Masliah E, Williams DS, Goldstein LSB (2005) Axonopathy and transport deficits early in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Science 307:1282-1288 (Pubitemid 40299973)
182. 2+ exchanger. J Neurosci 12:430-439
183. Sun X, Minohara M, Kikuchi H, Ishizu T, Tanaka M, Piao H, Osoegawa M, Ohyagi Y, Shimokawa H, Kira J-I (2006) The selective Rho-kinase inhibitor Fasudil is protective and therapeutic in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J Neuroimmunol 180:126-134 (Pubitemid 44692316)
184. Tamsett TJ, Picchione KE, Bhattacharjee A (2009) NAD+activates KNa channels in dorsal root ganglion neurons. J Neurosci 29:5127-5134
185. Tang-Schomer MD, Patel AR, Baas PW, Smith DH (2010) Mechanical breaking of microtubules in axons during dynamic stretch injury underlies delayed elasticity, microtubule disassembly, and axon degeneration. FASEB J 24:1401-1410
186. Tesseur I, Van Dorpe J, Bruynseels K, Bronfman F, Sciot R, Van Lommel A, Van Leuven F (2000) Prominent axonopathy and disruption of axonal transport in transgenic mice expressing human apolipoprotein E4 in neurons of brain and spinal cord. Am J Pathol 157:1495-1510
187. Tönges L, Koch J, Bähr M, Lingor P (2011) ROCKing regeneration-Rho kinase inhibition as molecular target for neurorestoration. Front Mol Neurosci 4:39
188. Touma E, Kato S, Fukui K, Koike T (2007) Calpain-mediated cleavage of collapsin response mediator protein (CRMP)-2 during neurite degeneration in mice. Eur J Neurosci 26:3368-3381 (Pubitemid 350243516)
189. Trapp B, Peterson J, Ransohoff R, Rudick R, Mörk S, Bö L (1998) Axonal transection in the lesions of multiple sclerosis. N Eng J Med 338:278-285 (Pubitemid 28065253)
190. Tsai J, Grutzendler J, Duff K, Gan W-B (2004) Fibrillar amyloid deposition leads to local synaptic abnormalities and breakage of neuronal branches. Nat Neurosci 7:1181-1183 (Pubitemid 39426234)
191. Utton MA, Noble WJ, Hill JE, Anderton BH, Hanger DP (2005) Molecular motors implicated in the axonal transport of tau and alpha-synuclein. J Cell Sci 118:4645-4654 (Pubitemid 41646375)
192. Van Damme P, Dewil M, Robberecht W, Van Den Bosch L (2005) Excitotoxicity and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Neurodegener Dis 2:147-159 (Pubitemid 43827916)
193. Vavlitou N, Sargiannidou I, Markoullis K, Kyriacou K, Scherer SS, Kleopa KA (2010) Axonal pathology precedes demyelination in a mouse model of X-linked demyelinating/type I Charcot-Marie Tooth neuropathy. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 69:945-958
194. Veeranna A, Kaji T, Boland B, Odrljin T, Mohan P, Basavarajappa BS, Peterhoff C, Cataldo A, Rudnicki A, Amin N, Li BS, Pant HC, Hungund BL, Arancio O, Nixon RA (2004) Calpain mediates calcium-induced activation of the erk1,2 MAPK pathway and cytoskeletal phosphorylation in neurons: relevance to Alzheimer's disease. Am J Pathol 165:795-805 (Pubitemid 39129287)
195. Vershinin M, Carter BC, Razafsky DS, King SJ, Gross SP (2007) Multiple-motor based transport and its regulation by Tau. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104:87-92 (Pubitemid 46067989)
196. Vosler PS, Brennan CS, Chen J (2008) Calpain-mediated signaling mechanisms in neuronal injury and neurodegeneration. Mol Neurobiol 38:78-100
197. Waetzig V, Herdegen T (2005) Context-specific inhibition of JNKs: overcoming the dilemma of protection and damage. Trends Pharmacol Sci 26:455-461 (Pubitemid 41207877)
198. Waller A (1850) Experiments on the section of glossopharyngeal and hypoglossal nerves of the frog and observations of the alternatives produced thereby in the structure of their primitive fibres. Philos Trans R Soc Lond Biol 140:423-429
199. Wang D, Ayers MM, Catmull DV, Hazelwood LJ, Bernard CCA, Orian JM (2005) Astrocyte-associated axonal damage in pre-onset stages of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Glia 51:235-240 (Pubitemid 41297430)
200. Wang J, Zhai Q, Chen Y, Lin E, Gu W, McBurney MW, He Z (2005) A local mechanism mediates NAD-dependent protection of axon degeneration. J Cell Biol 170:349-355 (Pubitemid 41126935)
201. Wang QJ, Ding Y, Kohtz DS, Mizushima N, Cristea IM, Rout MP, Chait BT, Zhong Y, Heintz N, Yue Z (2006) Induction of autophagy in axonal dystrophy and degeneration. J Neurosci 26:8057-8068 (Pubitemid 44315130)
202. Weibel D, Kreutzberg GW, Schwab ME (1995) Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) prevents lesion-induced axonal die-back in young rat optic nerve. Brain Res 679:249-254
203. Weishaupt N, Silasi G, Colbourne F, Fouad K (2010) Secondary damage in the spinal cord after motor cortex injury in rats. J Neurotrauma 27:1387-1397
204. Wen Y, Parrish JZ, He R, Zhai RG, Kim MD (2011) Nmnat exerts neuroprotective effects in dendrites and axons. Mol Cell Neurosci 48:1-8
205. Weston CR, Davis RJ (2007) The JNK signal transduction pathway. Curr Opin Cell Biol 19:142-149 (Pubitemid 46386399)
206. Westphal V, Rizzoli SO, Lauterbach MA, Kamin D, Jahn R, Hell SW (2008) Video-rate far-field optical nanoscopy dissects synaptic vesicle movement. Science 320:246-249 (Pubitemid 351521423)
207. Whitmore AV, Lindsten T, Raff MC, Thompson CB (2003) The proapoptotic proteins Bax and Bak are not involved in Wallerian degeneration. Cell Death Differ 10:260-261 (Pubitemid 36553469)
208. Wilbrey AL, Haley JE, Wishart TM, Conforti L, Morreale G, Beirowski B, Babetto E, Adalbert R, Gillingwater TH, Smith T, Wyllie DJA, Ribchester RR, Coleman MP (2008) VCP binding influences intracellular distribution of the slowWallerian degeneration protein, Wld (S). Mol Cell Neurosci 38:325-340
209. Willesen MG, Gammeltoft S, Vaudano E (2002) Activation of the c-Jun N terminal kinase pathway in an animal model of Parkinson's disease. Ann N Y Acad Sci 973:237-240 (Pubitemid 36125011)
210. Wirths O, Weis J, Kayed R, Saido TC, Bayer TA (2007) Age-dependent axonal degeneration in an Alzheimer mouse model. Neurobiol Aging 28:1689-1699 (Pubitemid 47393589)
211. Wong ASL, Lee RHK, Cheung AY, Yeung PK, Chung SK, Cheung ZH, Ip NY (2011) Cdk5-mediated phosphorylation of endophilin B1 is required for induced autophagy in models of Parkinson's disease. Nat Cell Biol 13:568-579
212. Xue Y-Q, Ma B-F, Zhao L-R, Tatom JB, Li B, Jiang L-X, Klein RL, Duan W-M (2010) AAV9-mediated erythropoietin gene delivery into the brain protects nigral dopaminergic neurons in a rat model of Parkinson's disease. Gene Ther 17:83-94
213. Yahata N, Yuasa S, Araki T (2009) Nicotinamide mononucleotide adenylyltransferase expression in mitochondrial matrix delays Wallerian degeneration. J Neurosci 29:6276-6284
214. Yan T, Feng Y, Zheng J, Ge X, Zhang Y, Wu D, Zhao J, Zhai Q (2010) Nmnat2 delays axon degeneration in superior cervical ganglia dependent on its NAD synthesis activity. Neurochem Int 56:101-106
215. Yang Y, Fukui K, Koike T, Zheng X (2007) Induction of autophagy in neurite degeneration of mouse superior cervical ganglion neurons. Eur J Neurosci 26:2979-2988 (Pubitemid 350115519)
216. Yankner BA, Duffy LK, Kirschner DA (1990) Neurotrophic and neurotoxic effects of amyloid beta protein: reversal by tachykinin neuropeptides. Science 250:279-282
217. Yoshimura K, Ueno M, Lee S, Nakamura Y, Sato A, Yoshimura K, Kishima H, Yoshimine T, Yamashimta T (2011) C-Jun N-terminal kinase induces axonal degeneration and limits motor recovery after spinal cord injury in mice. Neurosci Res 71:266-277
218. Yue Z (2007) Regulation of neuronal autophagy in axon: implication of autophagy in axonal function and dysfunction/degeneration. Autophagy 3:139-141
219. Zhai Q, Wang J, Kim A, Liu Q, Watts R, Hoopfer E, Mitchison T, Luo L, He Z (2003) Involvement of the ubiquitin-proteasome system in the early stages of Wallerian degeneration. Neuron 39:217-225 (Pubitemid 36897545)
220. Zhao C, Takita J, Tanaka Y, SetouM, Nakagawa T, Takeda S, Yang HW, Terada S, Nakata T, Takei Y, SaitoM, Tsuji S, Hayashi Y, Hirokawa N (2001) Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 2A caused by mutation in a microtubule motor KIF1Bbeta. Cell 105:587-597 (Pubitemid 32524112)
221. Zhu Y-B, Sheng Z-H (2011) Increased axonal mitochondrial mobility does not slow amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)-like disease in mutant SOD1 mice. J Biol Chem 286:23432-23440
222. Ziv NE, Spira ME (1995) Axotomy induces a transient and localized elevation of the free intracellular calcium concentration to the millimolar range. J Neurophysiol 74:2625-2637 (Pubitemid 26012320)