Algeria's Path to Reform: Authentic Change?

Middle East Policy

Volumn 19, Issue 2, 2012, Pages 66-83

  Zoubir, Yahia H ^a   Aghrout, Ahmed ^b  

^a KEDGE BUSINESS SCHOOL   (France)

^b UNIVERSITY OF SALFORD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84862657965     PISSN: 10611924     EISSN: 14754967     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-4967.2012.00536.x     Document Type: Article

References (88)

1. Marina Ottaway, "The New Moroccan Constitution: Real Change or More of the Same?" Carnegie Endowment, June 20, 2011.
2. Ahmed Benchemsi, "Morocco's King Is Destroying Hope for Democracy. With the Protest Movement Weakened, King Mohammed VI Is Forcing Constitutional Change and Retaining Absolute Power,"The Guardian, June 30, 2011.
3. Paul Silverstein, "Weighing Morocco's New Constitution,"Middle East Research and Information Project, July 5, 2011.
4. Keith Sutton, Ahmed Aghrout and Salah Zaimeche, "Political Changes in Algeria: An Emerging Electoral Geography," The Maghreb Review 17, nos 1-2 (1992): 3-27.
5. Yahia H. Zoubir, "Stalled Democratization of an Authoritarian Regime: The Case of Algeria," Democratization 2, no. 2 (1994 109-139.
6. The enactment of an information code in 1990 ended the state's monopoly over printed media. A law passed in paved the way to the setting up of a wide range of organizations dealing with different issues (see endnote 47).1990.
7. See Fareed Zakaria, "The Rise of Illiberal Democracy,"Foreign Affairs 76 (1997): 22-43.
8. Larry J. Diamond, "Elections without Democracy: Thinking about Hybrid Regimes," Journal of Democracy 13, no. 2 (April 2002): 21-35.
9. Richard Snyder, "Beyond Electoral Authoritarianism: The Spectrum of Nondemocratic Regimes," In Andreas Schedler, ed., Electoral Authoritarianism: The Dynamics of Unfree Competition (Lynne Rienner, 2006.
10. Matthijs Bogaards, "How to Classify Hybrid Regimes? Defective Democracy and Electoral Authoritarianism," Democratization 16, no. 2 (2009): 399-423.
11. Steve Levitsky and Lucan A. Way, Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes after the Cold War (Cambridge University Press, 2010).
12. Doron Shultziner, Struggling for Recognition: The Psychological Impetus for Democratic Progress (New York: Continuum Press, 2010), 3.
13. By way of illustration, until February, apart from the Front National Algérien (Algerian National Front, FNA) that was recognized in 1999, no other new political party had been legalized yet.2012.
14. Stephen J. King. The New Authoritarianism in the Middle East and North Africa (Indiana University Press, 2009).
15. These elections, whose purpose is to provide some degree of legitimacy to the incumbent regime, have been characterized as "electoral authoritarianism." See, Andreas Schedler (ed.), "The Logic of Electoral Authoritarianism," in Electoral Authoritarianism-The Dynamics of Unfree Competition (Lynne Rienner, 2006).
16. "Démocratie, gouvernement, religion, partis, économie, citoyenneté...Ce que pensent les Algériens,"El Watan, January 17, 2012, accessed on January 19, The poll was sponsored by the Arab Barometer.2012.
17. Ahmed Aghrout, "The Presidential Election in Algeria, April no. 1 (March 2009," Electoral Studies 29, 2010): 177-81.
18. Ahmed Aghrout and Yahia Zoubir, "Introducing Algeria's President-for-Life,"Middle East Report Online, April 1, 2009, accessed January 13, 2012.
19. In 2010, there were close to 10,000 riots in Algeria.
20. The riots started in a western suburb of Algiers on January 5, then spread to other districts in the capital and several cities in the country a few days later - some sources spoke of half of the country's 48 wilayas (provinces) that were affected. In many cities, protestors looted buildings, including banks, shops and businesses, government offices, schools, libraries and so forth. As stated by Daho Ould Kablia, minister of interior, four days of violence left three people dead - death toll rose to five a few days later - 800 wounded, amongst whom 736 were police officers, and 1,000 arrested, most of whom were minors. See La Tribune, January 10, 2011.
21. Amar Rafa, "Protéger les couches défavorisées et sévir contre les spéculateurs: Le Retour annoncé de l'Etat,"La Tribune (Algiers), January 10, 2011.
22. The most prominent case was that of the 27-year old father of two, Mohsen Bouterfif, who died on January 17, 2011, four days after setting himself on fire because the authorities refused to deal with his grievances relating to housing and employment. Thirty-five year old Karim Bendine, who immolated on January 18, in the eastern coastal city of Dellys, died a few days later. Although cases of immolation in Algeria multiplied following Tunisia's Mohamed Bouazizi's, the press had long reported such attempts throughout Algeria.2011.
23. Azzedine Layachi, "Algeria's Rebellion by Installments,"Middle East Report Online, March 12, 2011, accessed January 24, 2012.
24. These included the Rassemblement pour la Culture et la Démocratie (Rassemblement pour la Culture et la Démocratie, RCD), Parti de l'Avant-Garde Socialiste (Socialist Vanguard Party, MDS), Parti pour la liberté et la justice (Party of Liberty and Justice, PLJ), the Ligue Algériennes pour la Défense des Droits de l'Homme (The Algerian League for the Defense of Human Rights, LADDH) as well as the Syndicat Autonome des Travailleurs de l'Education et de la Formation (Independent Union of Education and Training Workers, SATEF), and the Syndicat National Autonome des Personnels de l'Administration Publique (National Independent Union of Civil Servants, SNAPAP). For a full list of the CNCD founding members, see, LADDH, Pour une Coordination Nationale pour le Changement et la Démocratie, January 21, 2011, accessed 17 December 2011.
25. Mokrane Ait Ouarabi, "Vers l'élargissement du front pour le changement,"El-Watan, January 24, 2011.
26. A decree issued in June by the Algerian government prohibits public gatherings in the capital Algiers with no time limit.2001.
27. Amnesty International, "Algeria Urged to Allow Peaceful Protests," February 11, 2011.
28. The 2,000 demonstrators were outnumbered by the riot police, estimated at about 30,000 officers.
29. Article 88 (1) stipulates that, "If the President of the Republic, because of serious and long-lasting illness, happens to be in the impossibility to carry out his functions, the Constitutional Council meets de jure, and after having verified the reality of the impediment by the appropriate means, proposes, unanimously, to the Parliament to declare the state of impediment." Algerian Constitution, available on:, accessed January 12, 2012.
30. Arab Chih, "L'armée doit prendre ses responsabilités - Maître Ali Yahia préconise l'application de l'article 88 de la constitution,"Liberté, April 25, 2011, accessed April 26,, available on: 2011.
31. Hadjer Guenanfa, "La CNCD-partis politiques suspend ses marches du samedi,"Tout Sur L'Algérie (online), June 24, 2011, accessed September 23,, available at2011.
32. Michael C. Hudson, "After the Gulf War: Prospects for Democratization in the Arab World," Middle East Journal 45, no. 3 (1991).
33. Yahia H. Zoubir, "State and Civil Society in Algeria," In Yahia H. Zoubir, ed., North Africa in Transition: State, Society and Economic Transformationin the 1990s (University Press of Florida, 1999), 29-42.
34. Although there exist no reliable figures, this conflict is estimated to have claimed 100,000-200,000 lives and the forced disappearance of over 7,000 people.
35. Peter Osborne, "Libya: The Arab Spring May Yet Turn to Chilly Winter,"Telegraph, October 22, 2011, accessed January 26,, available at: 2012.
36. Marina Ottaway and Amr Hamzawy, "Protest Movements and Political Change in the Arab World,"Carnegie Endowment for International Peace Policy Outlook, January 28, 2011, accessed January 29, 2012.
37. Algérie Presse Service, available on, accessed February 23, 2012. In April 2012, the IMF asked Algeria to contribute to the organization's financial capacities. "Le FMI sollicite l'Algérie pour renforcer ses capacités financières,"Le Monde, 23 April, 2012.
38. "Loi no. 11-11 du 18 juillet 2011 portant loi de finances complémentaire 2011," published in the Journal Officiel de la Répulique Algérienne (JORA) 50, no. 40 (July 2011): 4-18.
39. Nabila Amir, "Vingt-un députés demandent la levée de l'état d'urgence," El-Watan, February 3, 2011, accessed on February 4, 2011.
40. "Ordonnance no. 11-01 du 23 février 2011 portant levée de l'état d'urgence," published in the JORA 50, no. 12 (February 2011): 4.
41. See "Réactions mitigées des partis,", El-Moudjahid (Algiers), February 5, 2011; "Levée de l'état d'urgence en Algérie: réactions mitigées des partis,"Ennahar (Algiers), February 5, 2011; "La levée de l'état d'urgence n'est pas une fin en soi,"Liberté (Algiers), February 5, 2011; "Réactions des partis politiques: Entre satisfaction et réticence,"Horizons (Algiers), February 22, 2011; "La classe politique réagit aux décisions du Conseil des ministres: Des réactions mitigées,"Le Midi Libre, February 24, 2011.
42. See "Ordonnance no. 11-03 modifiant et complétant la Loi no. 91-23 du 6 décembre 1991 relative à la participation de l'armée nationale populaire à des missions de sauvegarde de l'ordre public hors les situations d'exception;""Décret présidentiel no. 11-90 relatif à la mise en œuvre et à l'engagement de l'armée nationale populaire dans le cadre de la lutte contre le terrorisme et la subversion," published in the JORA 50, no. 12 (February 2011): 4-5.
43. This was in a speech read on his behalf by his adviser, Mohamed Ali Boughazi, at a conference held in the city of Mostaganem on March 19, 2011.
44. Ahmed Mesbah, "Il promet une sortie de la situation de crise: Bouteflika fixe l'objet des réformes,"L'Expression, March 20, 2011.
45. Under the proposed information law, the media sector would be partially privatized, press offences would be decriminalized, and a regulatory body would be set up to promote and reinforce press freedoms.
46. The alliance, formed in, consists of the FLN, the Rassemblement National Démocratique (National Democratic Rally, RND) and the Mouvement de la Société pour la Paix (Movement of Society for Peace, MSP).2002.
47. Madjid Makhedi, "Réformes politiques annoncées par le chef de l'Etat - Aït Ahmed dénonce la démarche du pouvoir,"El-Watan, June 12, 2011.
48. Mehdi Benslimane, "L'opposition a dit Niet, le pouvoir s'auto-consultera sur les réformes politiques de Bouteflika,"Dernières Nouvelles d'Algérie (online), May 20, 2011, accessed February 4, 2012.
49. See "Loi organique no. 12-01 du 12 janvier 2012 relative au régime électoral"; "Loi organique no. 12-02 du 12 janvier 2012 fixant les cas d'incompatibilité avec le mandat parlementaire"; "Loi organique no. 12-03 du 12 janvier 2012 fixant les modalités augmentant les chances d'accès de la femme à la représentation dans les assemblées élues"; "Loi organique no. 12-04 du 12 janvier 2012 relative aux partis politiques"; "Loi organique no. 12-05 du 12 janvier 2012 relative à l'information"; "Loi organique no. 12-06 du 12 janvier 2012 relative aux associations." The first three texts were published in JORA, 51, no. 1, (janvier 14, 2012), and the others in JORA, 51, no. 2, (January 15, 2012).
50. See "Loi no. 90-07 du 3 avril 1990 relative a l'information," published in JORA, 29, no. 14, (April 4, 1990), pp. 395-403.
51. "Loi no. 90-31 du 4 décembre relative aux associations," published in JORA, vol. 29, no. 53, (5 décembre 1990), pp. 1438-1442.
52. "Ordonnance no. 97-07 du 6 mars 1997 portant loi organique relative au régime électoral," published in JORA, 36, no. 12 (March 1997): pp. 3-22.
53. "Ordonnance no.97-09 du 6 mars 1997 portant loi organique relative aux partis politiques," published in JORA 36, no. 12 (March 1997): 24-28.
54. Abed Charef, "Par où commencer la réforme?"Le Quotidien d'Oran, April 28, 2011, accessed on April 30, 2011.
55. The MSP, the third partner in the coalition which opted for abstention, claimed that the proposed "reforms were emptied of their substance" and called on Bouteflika to submit them to a popular referendum instead.
56. The FLN and the RND have 136 seats and 61 seats, respectively, in the 389-seat legislature.
57. For instance, Louisa Hanoune, leader of the PT, accused the FLN of encouraging political corruption as its deputies switched to this party; see Farouk Djouadi, "Hanoune à propos des députés ayant rejoint le FLN - Libre aux partis de se transformer en poubelles,'"L'Expression (Algiers), April 26, 2008, accessed April 28, 2011.
58. Achira Mammeri, "Elections législatives - Des ministres RND candidats,"L'Expression (Algiers), March 14, 2007, accessed on March 28, 2007.
59. Women's political rights, especially those allowing them to stand for election, were originally provided by the 1976 constitution (article 58) and guaranteed in the succeeding constitutions, 1989 (article 47) and 1996 (article 50). The constitutional amendments of November included a new proviso which, in due course, aims at creating a level playing field for men and women; "the state strives to the promotion of the political rights of women by increasing their chances of access to representation in elected assemblies."2008.
60. There are three presidents of municipal assemblies out of 1,541, and only one president of the provincial assembly of 48 (wilayas).
61. The Inter-Parliamentary Union, Women in National Parliaments 2011, August 31, 2011, accessed February 5, 2012.
62. In the amended law, 20 percent of seats will be reserved for women in constituencies that have four seats, 30 percent for constituencies with five seats, 35 percent for those with 14 seats or more and 40 percent for constituencies with more than 32 seats. The Algerian community abroad will be allowed a 50 percent quota for women.
63. Reda Bekkat, "On achève bien les illusions,"El-Watan, November 10, 2011, accessed on November 11, available on: 2011.
64. It was elected with a turnout of just 35 percent, the lowest ever in post-independence Algeria.
65. Lahouari Addi, "Les Parties politiques en Algérie,"Revue des Mondes musulmans et de la Méditerranée (REMMM) 111-112 (March 2006): 139-162.
66. In their seminal work, LaPalombara and Weiner identified a modern political party as one that, outlasts its founders, has a national existence, seeks popular support, and endeavors to conquer state power. See Joseph La Palombara and Myron Weiner, eds., Political Parties and Political Development (Princeton University Press, 1969), 6.
67. Sigmund Neumann, "What Is a Party?" in Comparative Political Parties-Selected Readings, Andrew Milnor, ed. (Thomas Y. Crowell, 1969),26-27.
68. "Loi organique no. 12-04 du 12 janvier 2012 relative aux partis politiques.".
69. G.O., "Les élections législatives par les chiffres,"Le Quotidien d'Oran, 21 April, Of the approximately sixty parties that had been authorized until 1999, only 22 had remained active.2012.
70. President of the National Association of the Sentenced to Death [by the French colonial authorities during the Algerian War of National Liberation against France].
71. The information concerning the political parties has been compiled from many news reports, among which we can cite: "Dix-sept partis autorisés à tenir leur congrès constitutifs, Algérie Presse Service (APS), February 2, 2012.
72. Larbi Graïne, "Législatives 2012 Petite sociologie des nouveaux partis,"Algérie360, February 1, 2012.
73. Wassila Benhamed, "Législatives 2012 5 nouveaux partis politiques entrent en lice,"El Moudjahid (Algiers), February 14, 2012.
74. In a dossier entitled "Le mépris" [disdain], the influential newspaper El Watan published a series of articles underscoring the incompetence of the authorities in handling the crisis caused by the unusually bad weather. See, in particular, "Législatives: La neige va faire fondre la participation,"El Watan, February 10, 2012.
75. K. Selim, "La neige et le désert politique,"Le Quotidien d'Oran, February 11, 2012.
76. The regime never learned the lessons from the 2001 flood disaster in Bab el Oued in the heart of the capital or the 2003 earthquake in Boumerdes, a short distance east of the capital.2003.
77. Fidet Mansour, "Algeria Debates Voter Abstention Penalty,"Magharebia, 20 April, 2012.
78. An analysis of those elections can be found in Louisa Dris-Aït-Hamadouche, "The 2007 Legislative Elections in Algeria: Political Reckonings," Mediterranean Politics 13, no. 1 (March 2008): 87-94.
79. "Discours du Président Bouteflika à l'occasion de l'annonce des élections législatives de l'année 2012 Garantir la transparence du scrutin,"El Moudjahid (Algiers), February 11, 2012.
80. "Naissance de 'l'Alliance de l'Algérie verte' regroupant trois partis d'obédience islamique"El Watan, 7 March, 2012.
81. "Alliance de l'Algérie verte: Des listes communes dans 47 wilayas et des listes séparées à Ghardaïa", El-Moudjahid, April 18, 2012.
82. Aomar F., "Elle participle avec des listes communes dans 47 wilayas-L'Alliance verte divisée à Ghardaia,"Les Débats (Algiers), April 19, 2012.
83. Faouzia Ababsa, "Le MSP se retire de l'alliance présidentielle,"La Tribune (Paris), January 1, 2012.
84. Farid Abdeladim, "L'Alliance verte annonce la couleur!"Liberté, 15 April 2012.
85. Amel Bentolba, "Menasra: Le Clin d'œil aux anciens du FIS,"Le soir d'Algérie, February 6. 2012.
86. Yahia H. Zoubir and Louisa Dris-Aït-Hamadouche, "The Fate of Political Islam in Algeria," in The Contemporary Maghrib, Bruce Maddy-Weitzman and D. Zisenwine, eds. (University Press of Florida, 2007), 103-31.
87. Another scenario might be an attempt by the FLN faction led by Abdelaziz Belkhadem to draw to its ranks small Islamist parties to form a nationalist-Islamist coalition, which is already apparent within that faction of the FLN.
88. See President Bouteflika's message on the occasion of International Workers' Day, El-Moudjahid, May 2, 2012.