Soviet communism and the British planning movement: Rational learning or Utopian imagining?

Planning Perspectives

Volumn 27, Issue 4, 2012, Pages 499-524

  Ward, Stephen V ^a  

^a OXFORD BROOKES UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

British council; British planning; Communism; Friendship organizations; International knowledge flows; Soviet planning

Indexed keywords

COMMUNISM; EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS; HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY; KNOWLEDGE; LEARNING; NUMERICAL MODEL; PLANNING PRACTICE; URBAN PLANNING;

UNITED KINGDOM;

EID: 84861403324     PISSN: 02665433     EISSN: 14664518     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/02665433.2012.705127     Document Type: Article

References (227)

1. D. Caute, The Fellow Travellers: Intellectual Friends of Communism (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2nd ed., 1988), 264.
2. P. Hollander, Political Pilgrims: Travels of the Western Intellectuals to the Soviet Union, China and Cuba 1928-1978 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981), 28-9.
3. For example, R. Rose, Learning from Comparative Public Policy: A Practical Guide (London: Routledge, 2005).
4. D.P. Dolowitz and D. Marsh, 'Who Learns What from Whom? A Review of the Policy Transfer Literature', Political Studies 44 (1996): 343-57.
5. D.P. Dolowitz and D. Marsh, 'Learning from Abroad: The Role of Policy Transfer in Contemporary Policy-Making', Governance 13 (2000): 5-24.
6. E.W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Random House, 1978).
7. D. Gregory, Geographical Imaginations (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994).
8. M. Bassin, Imperial Visions: Nationalist Imagination and Geographical Expansion in the Russian Far East, 1840-1865 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999).
9. J.-L. Cohen, Scenes of the World to Come: European Architecture and the American Challenge 1893-1960 (Paris/Montreal: Flammarion/Canadian Centre for Architecture, 1995).
10. S.V. Ward, 'What Did the Germans Ever Do for Us? A Century of British Learning about and Imagining Modern Planning', Planning Perspectives 25 (2010): 117-40.
11. For example, M. Dremaite, 'Soviet Industrialization of Housing Technologies in the Context of the International Modernism' (Tensions of Europe/Inventing Europe Working Paper No. 2009_2, 2009).
12. L. Stanek and T. Avermaete, eds., 'Cold War Transfer. Architecture and Planning from Socialist Countries in the "Third World"', Journal of Architecture 17 (Special Issue) (2012).
13. A. Kopp, Town and Revolution: Soviet Architecture and City Planning 1917-1935 (London: Thames and Hudson, 1970).
14. B. Lubetkin, 'Town and Landscape Planning in Soviet Russia', Journal of the Town Planning Institute 19 (1933): 69-75.
15. S.O. Khan-Magomedov, Alexandr Vesnin and Russian Constructivism (London: Lund Humphries, 1986).
16. O.A. Shvidkovsky, ed., Building in the USSR 1917-1932 (London: Studio Vista, 1971).
17. R. Service, A History of Twentieth-Century Russia (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997), 123-89.
18. The USSR in Construction (Moscow: State Publishing House of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, 1930-1941).
19. Early issues featuring Soviet cities are 7-8, 1930; 9, 11, 1931.
20. A. Kopp, 'Foreign Architects in the Soviet Union During the First Two Five-Year Plans', in Reshaping Russian Architecture: Western Technology, Utopian Dreams, ed. W.C. Brumfield (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 176-214.
21. 'Russia's Building Dictator: Big Town-Planning Contract', Manchester Guardian, October 25, 1930.
22. H. Blumenfeld, Life Begins at 65: The Not Entirely Candid Autobiography of a Drifter (Montreal: Harvest House, 1987), 123-73.
23. Cohen, Scenes of the World, especially 81-3.
24. J.W. Cody, Exporting American Architecture 870-2000 (London: Routledge, 2003), 100-9.
25. A rare exception was T. Gelman, 'The Planning of Moscow', Town Planning Review 11 (1924): 13-6.
26. The author does not appear to have been British. R. Whitten 'Town Planning in Soviet Russia', Journal of the Town Planning Institute 17 (1931): 291-3.
27. M. Mächler, 'Town Development in Soviet Russia', Journal of the Town Planning Institute 18 (1932): 94-7, were reprints/ translations of US and German articles.
28. Society for Cultural Relations with the Soviet Union (hereafter SCR), 1st Annual Report 1924-1925 (London: SCR, 1925).
29. For example, UK National Archives (hereafter NA) HO 45/25437, Society for Cultural Relations with the U.S.S.R.: Enquiries About (File released in January 2011 following a Freedom of Information request 16813.) NA FO 371/111700, Society for Cultural Relations with the Soviet Union.
30. R. Beevers, The Garden City Utopia: A Critical Biography of Ebenezer Howard (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1988), 178.
31. Hertfordshire Archives & Local Studies, Sir Ebenezer Howard Archive, DE/Ho/F33/24, Proposal to Form a Society for Cultural Relations with Russia (May 1924).
32. J. Strachey, The Coming Struggle for Power (London: Gollancz, 1932).
33. SCR, 4th Annual Report 1927-8 (London: SCR, 1928), 8.
34. Her Soviet links soon attracted security service attention: NA KV 2/784, Williams-Ellis, Mary Amabel Nasau.
35. SCR, 9th Annual Report 1932-3 (London: SCR, 1932), 5.
36. C. Williams-Ellis, 'An Architect in Russia, I - Vast Programme but a Simplified Technique', Manchester Guardian, September 16, 1931.
37. Other articles in his 'architect in Russia' series were 'II - Mistakes in Detail - Rough-and-Ready methods', Manchester Guardian, September 17, 1931.
38. 'III - New Dwellings - The Penalty of Haste', Manchester Guardian, September 18, 1931.
39. 'IV - Proletarian's Adventure - "Where All Work Is Play"', Manchester Guardian, September 19, 1931.
40. Caute, Fellow Travellers, 11.
41. Hollander, Political Pilgrims, 38.
42. C. Williams-Ellis, Architect Errant (London: Constable, 1971), 184-7.
43. NA FO 371/15621, Russia: Housing and Town Planning in the Moscow District and its Development in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, Moscow despatch no. 322 Sir E. Ovey, June 22, 1931.
44. Dodd, 'Notices', Journal of the Town Planning Institute 40 (1954): 80.
45. Kenneth S. Dodd, 'Planning in the USSR', Journal of the Town Planning Institute 20 (1933): 34-53 (quotation page 34).
46. NA HLG 52/923, Foreign Correspondence Misc: Town Planning in Russia, Letter W. Semenoff [sic] - R. Unwin, undated).
47. NA HLG 25/725, Town and Country Planning - Garden Cities Committee - Memos circulated 1-12, GCC 10A, Memo on new towns in the USSR by Mr K.S. Dodd.
48. NA HLG 52/734, Town and Country Planning - Garden Cities Committee - Evidence 8 December 1932, 59-85.
49. SCR, 9th Annual Report 1932-1933 (London: SCR, 1932), 4-5.
50. SCR, 11th Annual Report 1934-1935 (London: SCR, 1935), 6.
51. NA HLG 25/725, Town and Country Planning - Garden Cities Committee - Memos circulated 1-12, GCC 11, Brief notes by the chairman of GCC on development of new cities and satellite towns, etc. in the USSR.
52. N. Taylor, 'The Mystery of Lord Marley: Nicole Taylor on the Trail of an English Peer in Stalin's Jewish Autonomous Region', The Jewish Quarterly, Summer, no. 198 (2005), http://www.jewishquarterly.org/issuearchive/article8d4f.html?articleid=113 (accessed July 21, 2011).
53. NA KV 2/3215, Stephen Harold SPENDER, 1934-51, Letter V. Kell-K.A. Airy, January 27, 1937.
54. Ministry of Health, Garden Cities and Satellite Towns: Report of the Departmental Committee (London: HMSO, 1935).
55. NA HLG 52/741, Consideration of Report of Marley Committee 1935-1937, Memorandum on report of the committee on garden cities and satellite towns, February 3, 1937.
56. M. Robbins, 'London Underground and Moscow Metro', Journal of Transport History 18 (1997): 45-53.
57. SCR, 19th Annual Report 1943-4 (20 Years of SCR) (London: SCR, 1944), 3.
58. A rare exception was the Moscow Soviet's visit to study city management in London (and Paris) in 1936: 'Russians' Study of English Methods', Times, September 21, 1936.
59. Caute, Fellow Travellers, 64-139.
60. S. Webb and B. Webb, Soviet Communism: A New Civilisation? 2 vols (London: Longmans, Green, 1935).
61. SCR, 13th Annual Report 1936-7 (London: SCR, 1937), annual accounts.
62. SCR, 9th Annual Report 1932-3 (London: SCR, 1932), 6.
63. 'Announcements', Journal of the Town Planning Institute 23 (1936-1937): 217.
64. Newcastle University Special Collections, Thomas Sharp Archive, THS February 5, 1917: Letter, A.W. Barr-T. Sharp, August 1, 1939.
65. G. Stephenson; C. De Marco, eds., On a Human Scale: A Life in City Design (Fremantle: Fremantle Arts Centre, 1992), 47-9.
66. Liverpool University Special Collections and Archives, D635, Library Board of Western Australia, J.S. Battye Library of West Australian History, Oral History Unit, Verbatim Transcript of an Interview with Gordon Stephenson (1908 -), September 1991 - February 1992, 53-4.
67. J. Allan, Berthold Lubetkin: Architecture and the Tradition of Progress (London: RIBA Publications, 1992).
68. D. Shvidkovsky, Russian Architecture and the West (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007), 357-79.
69. V. Paperny, Architecture in the Age of Stalin: Culture Two (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
70. Allan, Lubetkin, 119-26.
71. st Century: Papers, Programme 10th-17th November 1991 (London: Town and Country Planning Association/SCR, 1991), 26-31.
72. Beevers, Garden City Utopia, 177-8.
73. RIBA Archives, Memoirs of Eugene Kent (typescript, c1978) KeE/1: esp. 223.
74. E.C. Kaufmann, 'Review of Russian Architectural and Town Planning Journals', Town and Country Planning 2 (1934): 156-7.
75. 'The New Moscow Underground', Town and Country Planning 3 (1935): 142-3.
76. W.G. Raffé, 'The Reconstruction of Moscow: The Ten Year Plan', Town and Country Planning 4 (1936): 53-9.
77. L. Nicholas, 'Fellow Travellers: Dance and British Cold War Politics in the Early 1950s', Dance Research 19 (2001): 84.
78. SCR, 13th Annual Report 1936-7 (London: SCR, 1937), 9; 11-2.
79. E.D. Simon et al., Moscow in the Making (London: Longmans Green, 1937).
80. E.D. Simon et al., Moscow in the Making (London: Longmans Green, 1937), 221-7.
81. E. Simon, 'Moscow or Manchester?' Journal of the Town Planning Institute 23 (1937): 381-9.
82. 'Ministry of Planning-Sir Ernest Simon's Suggestions for Effective Action: Municipalised Urban Land', Manchester Guardian, September 4, 1937.
83. Simon, Moscow, 233-4.
84. Simon et al., Moscow, 211-5.
85. '"Democracy" of the Soviet-Sir Ernest Simon's Criticism: Housing and Planning', Manchester Guardian, June 22, 1937.
86. Hollander, Political Pilgrims, 74-101.
87. S.V. Ward, Planning the Twentieth-Century City: The Advanced Capitalist World (Chichester: Wiley, 2002), 121-5.
88. J.R. Gold, The Experience of Modernism: Modern Architects and the Future City 1928-1953 (London: Routledge, 1997).
89. S.R. Parsons, Communism in the Professions: The Organisation of the British Communist Party among Professional Workers, 1933-1956 (University of Warwick, PhD thesis, 1990), 415-7.
90. E. Darling, Reforming Britain: Narratives of Modernity Before Reconstruction (London: Routledge, 2007), 179-209.
91. G.E. Cherry, The Evolution of British Town Planning (Leighton Buzzard: Leonard Hill, 1974), 224.
92. K. Watts, Outwards from Home (Lewes: Book Guild, 1998), 54-63.
93. For example, K. Hauser, Bloody Old Britain: O.G.S. Crawford and the Archaeology of Modern Life (London: Granta, 2008), esp. 114-41.
94. E. Shoshkes, 'Jaqueline Tyrwhitt: Founding Mother of Modern Urban Design', Planning Perspectives 21 (2006): esp. 180-7.
95. There is no evidence that she ever joined the CPGB; her association with SCR is noted later in this article.
96. Parsons, Communism, 413-44.
97. Service, Twentieth-Century Russia, 254-73.
98. A. Calder, The People's War: Britain 1939-1945 (London: Panther, 1971), 401-5.
99. http://www.coventry.gov.uk/directory_record/6224/volgograd_russia (accessed September 26, 2011).
100. For example, Welwyn Garden City Urban District Council, Anglo-Soviet Friendship Week: The Week's Events (Welwyn Garden City: WGCUDC, 1941).
101. SCR, 17th Annual Report 1941-1942 (London: SCR, 1942), 1-2.
102. For example, D. Percival, 'Solving the Housing Problem: Conveyor Building in the U.S.S.R', Anglo-Soviet Journal 1 (1940): 244-8.
103. A. Ling, 'Town Planning in the Soviet Union (Twenty Years of Reconstruction)', Anglo-Soviet Journal 2 (1941): 206-16.
104. A. Ling, 'The Reconstruction of Moscow', Anglo-Soviet Journal 3 (1942): 91-100.
105. For example, A. Ling, Planning and Building in the U.S.S.R. (London: Todd, 1943).
106. For example, Publications, 'Anglo-Soviet Journal', Journal of the Town Planning Institute 28 (1942): 81.
107. Publications, Town and Country Planning 10 (1942): 71.
108. For example, Publications, 'Reconstruction in the U.S.S.R.', Journal of the Town Planning Institute 31 (1944): 30-4.
109. Publications, 'Notes on Soviet Reconstruction', Town and Country Planning 13 (1945): 175.
110. Ling biographical details from The New Town Record, Glasgow: The Planning Exchange, CDROM, 1997, supplemented by Gold, Experience of Modernism, 152-63, 180.
111. Gold, The Practice of Modernism (London: Routledge, 2007), 23.
112. E. Harwood, London County Council Architects (c. 1940-1965), Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (2004), http://oxforddnb.com/view/theme/97268 (accessed June 1, 2011).
113. Parsons, Communism, 433-5.
114. SCR, 21st Annual Report 1945-1946 (London: SCR, 1946), 1, 5.
115. SCR Architecture and Planning Section Committee Minutes, May 10, 1945.
116. a useful summary is J. Turner, 'SCR Architects and Planners Group 1945-56', Anglo-Soviet Journal 45 (1985): 3-7.
117. SCR Architecture and Planning Section Committee Minutes, June 20, 1945.
118. For example, SCR, 21st Annual Report 1945-6 (London: SCR, 1946), 6.
119. NA CAB129/22, Impressions of a Recent Visit to Poland and Czechoslovakia, Note by the Minister of Town and Country Planning, December 31, 1947.
120. NA FO 371/94726, Question of Whether Lord Silkin Should Give Up His Presidency of the British-Polish Friendship Society, Known To Be a Communist Front Organisation.
121. Parsons, Communism, 450-3.
122. Allan, Lubetkin, 449-52.
123. Membership information mainly from SCR annual reports and minutes of SCR Architecture and Planning section.
124. Harwood, London County Council.
125. SCR, Architecture and Planning Section Committee Minutes, February 19, 1948; January 17, 1949.
126. M. Glendinning, 'Cold-War Conciliation: International Architectural Congresses in the Late 1950s and Early 1960s', Journal of Architecture 14 (2009): 197-217, esp. 197-200.
127. S.J. Ball, The Cold War: An International History, 1947-1991 (London: Arnold, 1998), 9-65.
128. C. Mayhew, A War of Words: A Cold War Witness (London: Tauris, 1998), 14-47.
129. Parsons, Communism, 197-251.
130. The only released personal files refer to Shankland and MacEwen.
131. See NA KV 2/3108-3110, Colin Graeme LINDSAY-SHANKLAND, alias Graeme/Graham/Gordon SHANKLAND, Matthew GRAHAM: British. Graeme SHANKLAND, and NA KV2/2985-2989, Malcolm MacEwen/Ann MacEwen. NA KV 5/80, Macdonald discussion group 1951-1954, has cross-references to the others, except Lock, on whom see Note 89, and Johnson-Marshall (see Figure 4 and Note 111).
132. Mayhew, War of Words, 51-7.
133. For example, SCR Annual Report 1952-1953 (London: SCR, 1953), 3; 9.
134. SCR, Architecture and Planning Section Committee Minutes, October 1, 1951.
135. SCR, Architecture Committee Minutes [sic], September 17, 1952.
136. NA KV 2/3109, Colin Graeme LINDSAY-SHANKLAND, alias Graeme/Graham/Gordon SHANKLAND, Matthew GRAHAM: British. Graeme SHANKLAND, Extract from a copy of 'Architectural Student No. 2', forwarded from M.I.6 report, mentioning LOCK and SHANKLAND, Graeme: International Architecture Meeting, Warsaw, June 17-26, 1954.
137. Evidence for Ling derived from unsorted pamphlets in SCR Ling Bequest Collection.
138. RIBA Archives, Berthold Lubetkin Papers, LUB 15/20/1, esp. June 30, 1948.
139. Allan, Lubetkin, 463-518.
140. 'Civil Defence Security - Loyalty Check Proposed', Manchester Guardian, March 17, 1951.
141. D. Kynaston, Austerity Britain 1945-1951 (London: Bloomsbury, 2007), 549.
142. S. Parsons, 'British Communist Party School Teachers in the 1940s and 1950s', Science and Society 61 (1997): 46-67.
143. For example, Parsons, Communism, 272-3.
144. M. Clapson, 'The rise and fall of Dr Monica Felton, British town planner and peace activist', (paper delivered at 15th International Planning History Society Conference, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 15-18th July 2012).
145. For example, Hansard, HC Deb 18 June 1951 vol. 489 cc1-4.
146. M. Felton, That's Why I Went (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1953).
147. http://narescraig.co.uk/memoirs, chapter 30 (accessed June 10, 2011).
148. SCR 28th Annual Report 1952-1953 (London: SCR, 1953), 11.
149. Hansard, HL Deb 16 March 1955 vol 191 cc1123-5.
150. H. Spurling, Paul Scott: A Life (London: Pimlico, 1990), 291-3.
151. SCR 28th Annual Report 1952-1953 (London: SCR, 1953), 4.
152. SCR, Architecture and Planning Section Committee Minutes, November 19, 1952; December 17, 1952.
153. http://narescraig.co.uk/memoirs, chapter 28 (accessed June 10, 2011).
154. Newcastle University Special Collections, Thomas Sharp Archive, THS June 5, 1937, Letter A. Ling-T. Sharp July 12, 1953.
155. SCR, Architecture and Building Technique in the Soviet Union: A Symposium (London: SCR, 1954).
156. F. Tindall, Memoirs and Confessions of a County Planning Officer (Ford: Pantile Press, 1998), ix, 300.
157. T. Dalyell, 'Obituary: Frank Tindall', Independent, March 16, 1998.
158. Service, Twentieth-Century Russia, 331-55.
159. B.A. Ruble, 'From Khrushscheby to Korobki', in Russian Housing in the Modern Age: Design and Social History, ed. W.C. Brumfield and B.A. Ruble (New York: Woodrow Wilson Center Press/ Cambridge University Press, 1993), 232-70.
160. Drėmaitė, Soviet Industrialization.
161. HM Government, Statement on Discussions of the Prime Minister Sir Anthony Eden with Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, Mr N.A. Bulganin and Member of the Praesidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, Mr N.S. Khrushchev, Cmd 9753 (London: HMSO, 1956).
162. NA HLG 128/1, Minister's Visit to Russia.
163. NA FO 371/116773, Proposed Visit to the Soviet Union of Mr Duncan Sandys, British Minister of Housing.
164. For example, NA FO 371/111758, Invitations from the Society for Cultural Relations with the USSR.
165. For example, SCR, 'Soviet Architects in Britain', Architecture and Planning Information Bulletin 4 (1957): 25-8.
166. NA CAB 21/4746, Association for Regional Planning and Development, Letter P. Grey-N. Brook July 13, 1955, and accompanying report.
167. NA BW 2/520, Soviet Relations Committee: Correspondence about its Formation in 1955 and its Responsibilities, Executive Committee Minutes April 5, 1955.
168. Mayhew, War of Words, 58-9.
169. NA BW 2/520, Soviet Relations Committee: Correspondence about its Formation in 1955 and its Responsibilities, exchanges initiated by professional and other bodies and sponsored and aided by the Soviet Relations Committee as from July 1, 1955.
170. 'Russian Praise for New Towns - "The Best in Europe"', Times, September 28, 1955.
171. NA HLG 128/1, Minister's Visit to Russia, Report on visit of housing and building delegation to the U.S.S.R., September 14-28, 1955.
172. Hertfordshire Archives & Local Studies, F.J. Osborn Archive, H17, Tours, USSR 1958, Letters, F.J. Osborn-V.A. Kucherenko August 14, 1956.
173. A. Koudrisavtsev-F.J. Osborn September 28, 1956.
174. F. Fehér and A. Heller Hungary 1956 Revisited - The Message of a Revolution: A Quarter of a Century Afterwards (London: Allen and Unwin, 1983).
175. Hertfordshire Archives & Local Studies, F.J. Osborn Archive, H17, Tours, USSR 1958, Letter A. Koudrisavtsev-F.J. Osborn March 3, 1957.
176. UK BW 2/540, Soviet Relations Committee: Minutes of Meetings, Minutes December 12, 1956.
177. Mayhew, War of Words, 69.
178. NA BW 2/557, Soviet Relations Committee: Agenda, Minutes and Matters for Discussion, Interpreters supplied during calendar year 1957.
179. 'Russians Here to See New Towns - Similar Plans for their Own Overspill', Manchester Guardian, September 11, 1957.
180. NA BW 2/557, Soviet Relations Committee: Agenda, Minutes and Matters for Discussion, Progress reports on visits to and from the USSR, June 10, 1958, 4.
181. R.I. Maxwell, 'Town Planning Tour of the USSR', Town and Country Planning 28 (1960): 320-8.
182. Glendinning, 'Cold-War Conciliation', esp. 197-203.
183. 'Impressions of a Foreign Architect', Pravda, August 10, 1958, translated in Current Digest of the Soviet Press, 10, September 17, 1958, 18, https://dlib.eastview.com/browse/doc/13823267 (March 4, 2011).
184. W. Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era (London: Free Press, 2004), 270-99.
185. See also E. Hobsbawm, Interesting Times: A Twentieth-Century Life (London: Abacus, 2003), 201-18.
186. Parsons, Communism, 368-79.
187. RIBA Archives, Berthold Lubetkin Papers, LUB 11/6/1-2, Letters B. Lubetkin-H.E. Huan Hsiang, July 8, 1957.
188. Hu Tsiang-i-B. Lubetkin, November 28, 1957.
189. nd Annual Report 1956-7 (London: SCR, 1957), 3-4.
190. NA BW 2/557, Soviet Relations Committee: Agenda, Minutes and Matters for Discussion, Executive Committee, Soviet Relations Committee of the British Council, November 3, 1959.
191. NA FCO 13/266, Communist Front Organisations: Society for Cultural Relations with USSR, 1967-1968, Agreement between the government of the UK and the government of the USSR on relations in the scientific, technological, educational and cultural fields for 1967-1969.
192. For example, NA HLG 116/569/1 and 2, New Towns Association, Anglo-Soviet Liaison 1971-1977.
193. NA HLG 132/315, Foreign Visitors and Visits to Sites to See Examples of Reclamation Work 1975-1983.
194. NA FCO 28/3497, Town Twinning Between UK and Soviet Union 1978.
195. D.H. McKay and A.W. Cox, The Politics of Urban Change (London: Croom Helm, 1979), 120, 123.
196. S.V. Ward, 'Public-Private Partnerships', in British Planning: 50 Years of Urban and Regional Policy, ed. B. Cullingworth (London: Athlone, 1999), 232-49.
197. J. Gunther, Inside Russia (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1958), 406-8.
198. G. O'Hara, Dreams to Disillusionment: Economic and Social Planning in 1960s Britain (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2007), 16-19.
199. C. Peoples, 'Sputnik and "Skill Thinking" Revisited: Technological Determinism in American Responses to the Soviet Missile Threat', Cold War History 8 (2008): 55-75.
200. M. Goodwin, 'The Cold War and the Early Space Race', History in Focus Issue 10, http://www.history.ac.uk/ihr/Focus/cold/articles/godwin.html (September 28, 2011).
201. R. Edmonds, Russian Vistas: The Record of a Springtime Journey to Moscow, Leningrad, Kiev, Stalingrad, the Black Sea and the Caucasus (London: Phene, 1958), 9.
202. Edmonds, Russian Vistas, 26.
203. H.W. Wells, 'A Chartered Surveyor Looks at Soviet Russia', The Chartered Surveyor 91 (1959): 378.
204. H.M. Wright, 'A Visit to Russia', Town Planning Review 29 (1958): 177.
205. F.J. Osborn, 'Soviet City Development in 1958', Town and Country Planning 26 (1958): esp. 393.
206. D.W. Riley, 'Land Use Planning in Soviet Russia', Journal of the Town Planning Institute 45 (1959): 26-31.
207. Extract cited in Osborn, Soviet City, 385.
208. Hertfordshire Archives & Local Studies, F.J. Osborn Archive, Correspondence Re Possible UK Planners in USSR - Following Up 1958 Visit, G22, esp. Letter F.J. Osborn-A.G. Petrusevich, November 3, 1959.
209. P. White, Soviet Urban and Regional Planning: A Bibliography with Abstracts (London: Mansell, 1979), 164-75.
210. J.A. Underhill, 'Soviet New Towns, Planning and National Urban Policy: Shaping the Face of Soviet Cities', Town Planning Review 61 (1990): 263-85.
211. For example, E.H. Doubleday, 'Traffic in a Changing Environment', Journal of the Town Planning Institute 46 (1960): 226-38.
212. 'Study Tour of American Cities', Town and Country Planning 29 (1961): 315-59.
213. P.R. Rathbone, 'Planners at Large: An Account of the Jubilee Tour to North America', Journal of the Town Planning Institute 50 (1964): 382-85.
214. D. Matless, J. Oldfield, and A. Swain, 'Geographically Touring the Eastern Bloc: British Geography, Travel Cultures and the Cold War', Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 33 (2008): 354-75.
215. J. Oldfield, D. Matless, and A. Swain, 'The Making of a Sub-Discipline: State Initiatives and the Production of British Geographical Studies of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, 1945-1971', Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 36 (2011): 574-89.
216. For example, A. Richardson, 'Planning in the Soviet Union', Town and Country Planning 63 (1977): 108-11.
217. G. Smart, 'Planning in the Soviet Union: A Response', Town and Country Planning 63 (1977): 150.
218. NA HLG 116/569/1, New Towns Association, Anglo-Soviet Liaison 1971-1977, Memo S.W. Gilbert-I. Pugh, October 5, 1972. Compare with 'A Visit to the USSR by a British New Towns Delegation' 22, 1972-July 2, 1972, in the same file.
219. For example, NA HLG 132/315, Foreign Visitors and Visits to Sites to See Examples of Reclamation Work 1975-1983.
220. P. Cooke, Theories of Planning and Spatial Development (London: Hutchinson, 1983).
221. Service, Twentieth-Century Russia, 448-506.
222. J. Turner, 'SCR Architects and Planners Group 1945-1991', SCRSS (Society for Co-operation in Russian & Soviet Studies), Information Digest, Spring (2006): 1-2.
223. Ling, Planning and Building, 2-3.
224. Parsons, Communism, 447-58.
225. G. Shankland, 'William Morris Designer', in A. Briggs, William Morris: Selected Writings and Designs (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1962): unpaginated picture section and commentary.
226. J. Kay, Obituary: Graeme Shankland (1984), http://www.morrissociety.org/publications/JWMS/W84-85.6.2.Kay.pdf (accessed September 28, 2011).
227. J. Glancey, 'Obituary: Edward Hollamby', Guardian, January 24, 2000.