Antler regrowth as a form of epimorphic regeneration in vertebrates - A comparative view

Frontiers in Bioscience - Elite

Volumn 4 E, Issue 5, 2012, Pages 1606-1624

  Kierdorf, Uwe ^a   Kierdorf, Horst ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HILDESHEIM   (Germany)

Author keywords

Antler regeneration; Antlerogenic periosteum; Deer; Epimorphosis; Pedicle periosteum; Review; Stem cells; Wound healing

Indexed keywords

INTERLEUKIN 10; INTERLEUKIN 6; PLATELET DERIVED GROWTH FACTOR; TESTOSTERONE; TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR BETA1; TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR BETA2;

ADULT STEM CELL; AGE DETERMINATION; ANTLER CASTING; ANTLER DEATH; ANTLEROGENIC PERIOSTEUM; BLASTEMA; CAPREOLUS CAPREOLUS; CASTRATION; CELL DEDIFFERENTIATION; DEER; EPIDERMIS; EPIDERMIS CELL; EPIMORPHIC REGENERATION; FEEDBACK SYSTEM; FRONTAL BONE; GANGRENE; GRANULATION TISSUE; HORN; INFLAMMATION; LIMB REGENERATION; LIZARD; MESENCHYMAL STEM CELL; MINERALIZATION; MOLECULAR CLOCK; NEURAL CREST; NEURAL CREST CELL; NONHUMAN; PERIOSTEUM; PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESS; RED DEER; REGENERATION; REVIEW; SCAR FORMATION; TAIL; TISSUE REGENERATION; VELVET SHEDDING; VERTEBRATE; WHITE TAILED DEER; WOUND CONTRACTION; WOUND HEALING; XENOPUS LAEVIS; ANIMAL; COMPARATIVE STUDY; GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND AGING;

CERVIDAE; MAMMALIA; VERTEBRATA;

ANIMALS; ANTLERS; REGENERATION; VERTEBRATES;

EID: 84860846521     PISSN: 19450494     EISSN: 19450508     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2741/e483     Document Type: Review

References (119)

1. R. J. Goss: Principles of regeneration. New York: Academic Press (1969)
2. D. L. Stocum: Regenerative biology and medicine. Amsterdam: Elsevier, Academic Press (2006)
3. B. M. Carlson: Principles of regenerative biology. Amsterdam: Elsevier, Academic Press (2007)
4. J. P. Brockes and A. Kumar: Comparative aspects of animal regeneration. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 24, 525-549 (2008)
5. A. E. Bely and K. G. Nyberg: Evolution of animal regeneration: re-emergence of a field. Trends Ecol Evol 25, 161-170 (2010)
6. R. J. Goss: The evolution of regeneration: adaptive or inherent? J Theor Biol 159, 241-260 (1992) (Pubitemid 23032690)
7. A. A. Garza-Garcia, P. C. Driscoll and J. P. Brockes: Evidence for local evolution of mechanisms underlying limb regeneration in salamanders. Integr Comp Biol 50, 528-535 (2010)
8. A. R. Clause and E. A. Capaldi: Caudal autotomy and regeneration in lizards. J Exp Zool 305A, 965-973 (2006) (Pubitemid 44902324)
9. L. Alibardi: Morphological and cellular aspects of tail and limb regeneration in lizards. Advances in anatomy, embryology and cell biology, Vol. 207. Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag (2010)
10. D. M. Gardiner: Ontogenetic decline of regenerative ability and the stimulation of human regeneration. Rejuv Res 8, 141-153 (2005) (Pubitemid 41325049)
11. K. Muneoka, C. H. Allan, X. Yang, J. Lee and M. Han: Mammalian regeneration and regenerative medicine. Birth Defects Res C Embryo Today 84, 265-280 (2008)
12. M. Han, X. Jang, J. Lee, C. H. Allan and K. Muneoka: Development and regeneration of the neonatal digit tip in mice. Dev Biol 315, 125-135 (2008)
13. L. Yu, M. Han, M. Yan, E. C. Lee, J. Lee and K. Muneoka: BMP signaling induces digit regeneration in neonatal mice. Development 137, 551-559 (2010)
14. J. S. Price, C. Faucheux and S. Allen: Deer antlers as a model of mammalian regeneration. Curr Topics Dev Biol 67, 1-48 (2005) (Pubitemid 43588850)
15. U. Kierdorf, H. Kierdorf and T. Szuwart: Deer antler regeneration: cells, concepts, and controversies. J Morphol 268, 726-738 (2007) (Pubitemid 47235388)
16. U. Kierdorf, C. Li and J. S. Price: Improbable appendages: Deer antler renewal as a unique case of mammalian regeneration. Sem Cell Dev Biol 20, 535-542 (2009)
17. C. Li, F. Yang and A. Sheppard: Adult stem cells and mammalian epimorphic regeneration - insights from studying annual renewal of deer antlers. Curr Stem Cell Res Ther 4, 237-251 (2009)
18. U. Kierdorf and H. Kierdorf: Deer antlers - a model of mammalian appendage regeneration: an extensive review. Gerontology 57, 53-65 (2011)
19. D. Prothero and S. E. Foss: The evolution of artiodactyls. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press (2007)
20. R. J. Goss: Deer antlers: regeneration, function, and evolution. New York: Academic Press (1983)
21. G. M. Morriss-Kay: Derivation of the mammalian skull vault. J Anat 199, 143-151 (2001) (Pubitemid 32785384)
22. X. B. Jiang, S. Iseki, R. E. Maxson, H. M. Sucov and G. M. Morriss-Kay: Tissue origins and interactions in the mammalian skull vault. Dev Biol 241, 106-116 (2002) (Pubitemid 34066765)
23. U. Kierdorf and H. Kierdorf: Pedicle and first antler formation in deer: anatomical, histological, and developmental aspects. Z Jagdwiss 48, 22-34 (2002) (Pubitemid 34299637)
24. G. A. Lincoln: Appearance of antler pedicles in early foetal life in red deer. J Embryol Exp Morphol 29, 431-437 (1973)
25. C. Li and J. M. Suttie: Deer antlerogenic periosteum: a piece of postnatally retained embryonic tissue? Anat Embryol 204, 375-388 (2001) (Pubitemid 33139875)
26. H. Hartwig and J. Schrudde: Experimentelle Untersuchungen zur Bildung der primären Stirnauswüchse beim Reh (Capreolus capreolus L.). Z Jagdwiss 20, 1-13 (1974)
27. R. J. Goss and R. S. Powel: Induction of deer antlers by transplanted periosteum. I. Graft size and shape. J Exp Zool 235, 359-373 (1985) (Pubitemid 15005027)
28. U. Kierdorf and H. Kierdorf: Delayed ectopic antler growth and formation of a double-head antler in the metacarpal region of a fallow buck (Dama dama L.) following transplantation of antlerogenic periosteum. Ann Anat 182, 365-370 (2000) (Pubitemid 30449994)
29. H. Kierdorf and U. Kierdorf: The role of the antlerogenic periosteum for pedicle and antler formation in deer. In: J. S. Sim, H. H. Sunwoo, R. J. Hudson and B. T. Jeon (eds) Antler science and product technology, pp. 33-51, Edmonton: ASPTRC (2001)
30. H. Kierdorf, U. Kierdorf, T. Szuwart, U. Gath and G. Clemen: Light microscopic observations on the ossification process in the early developing pedicle of fallow deer (Dama dama). Ann Anat 176, 243-249 (1994) (Pubitemid 24185362)
31. C. Li and J. M. Suttie: Light microscopic studies of pedicle and early first antler development in red deer (Cervus elaphus). Anat Rec 239, 198-215 (1994) (Pubitemid 24153882)
32. C. Li and J. M. Suttie: Electron microscopic studies of antlerogenic cells from five developmental stages during pedicle and early antler formation in red deer (Cervus elaphus). Anat Rec 252, 587-599 (1998) (Pubitemid 28533406)
33. R. J. Goss: Induction of deer antlers by transplanted periosteum: III. orientation. J Exp Zool 259, 246-251 (1991)
34. G. B. Gruber: Morphobiologische Untersuchungen am Cerviden-Geweih. Werden, Wechsel und Wesen des Rehgehörns. Nachr Ges Wiss Göttingen Math Phys Kl NF Fachgr VI 3, 9-63 (1937)
35. U. Kierdorf, H. Kierdorf and A. Boyde: Structure and mineralisation density of antler and pedicle bone in red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) exposed to different levels of environmental fluoride: a quantitative backscattered electron imaging study. J Anat 196, 71-83 (2000) (Pubitemid 30088231)
36. R. E. Billingham, R. Mangold and W. K. Silvers: The neogenesis of skin in the antlers of deer. Ann NY Acad Sci 83, 491-498 (1959)
37. C. Li and J. M. Suttie: Histological studies of pedicle skin formation and its transformation to antler velvet in red deer (Cervus elaphus). Anat Rec 260, 62-71 (2000)
38. G. A. Bubenik: Morphological differences in the antler velvet of Cervidae. In: N. Ohtaishi and H.-I. Sheng (eds) Deer of China: biology and management. Developments in animal and veterinary sciences, 26, pp 56-64, Amsterdam, Elsevier (1993)
39. R. J. Goss: Induction of deer antlers by transplanted periosteum: II. Regional competence for velvet transformation in ectopic skin. J Exp Zool 244, 101-111 (1987)
40. R. J. Goss: Of antlers and embryos. In: G. A. Bubenik and A. B. Bubenik (eds) Horns, pronghorns, and antlers, pp. 298-312, New York: Springer-Verlag (1990)
41. C Li, F. Yang, X. Xing, X. Gao, X. Deng, C. Mackintosh and J. M. Suttie: Role of heterotypic tissue interactions in deer pedicle and first antler formation - revealed via a membrane insertion approach. J Exp Zool (Mol Dev Evol) 310B, 267-277 (2008)
42. X. Gao, F. Yang, H. Zhao, W. Wang and C. Li: Antler transformation is advanced by inversion of antlerogenic periosteum implants in sika deer (Cervus nippon). Anat Rec 293, 1787-1796 (2010)
43. C. Li, X. Gao, F. Yang, S. K. Martin, S. R. Haines, X. Deng, J. Schofield and J. L. Stanton: Development of a nude mouse model for the study of antlerogenesis - mechanism of tissue interaction and ossification pathway. J Exp Zool (Mol Dev Evol) 312B, 118-135 (2009)
44. C. Li, F. Ang, S. Haines, H. Zhao, W. Wang, X. Xing, H. Sun, W. Chu, X. Lu, L. Liu and C. McMahon: Stem cells responsible for deer antler regeneration are unable to recapitulate the process of first antler development - revealed through intradermal and subcutaneous transplantation. J Exp Zool (Mol Dev Evol) 314B, 552-570 (2010)
45. C. M. Waldo, G. B. Wislocki and D. W. Fawcett: Observations on the blood supply of growing antlers. Am J Anat 84, 27-61 (1949)
46. U. Kierdorf, H. Kierdorf and S. Knuth: Effects of castration on antler growth in fallow deer (Dama dama L.). J Exp Zool 273, 33-43 (1995)
47. R. J. Goss: Wound healing and antler regeneration. In: I. Maibach and D. T. Rovee (eds) Epidermal wound healing, pp. 219-228, Chicago: Year Book Medical Publishers (1972)
48. C. M. Waldo and G. B. Wislocki: Observations on the shedding of the antlers of Virginia deer (Odocoileus virginianus borealis). Am J Anat 88, 351-395 (1951)
49. G. B. Wislocki: Studies on the growth of deer antlers. I. On the structure and histogenesis of the antlers of the Virginia deer (Odocoileus virginianus borealis). Am J Anat 71, 371-415 (1942)
50. H. J. Rolf and A. Enderle: Hard fallow deer antler: a living bone till antler casting? Anat Rec 255, 69-77 (1999) (Pubitemid 29201068)
51. J. D. Currey, T. Landete-Castillejos, J. Estevez, F. Ceacero, A. Olguin, A. Garcia and L. Gallego: The mechanical properties of red deer antler bone when used in fighting. J Exp Biol 212, 3985-3993 (2009)
52. G. B. Gruber: Studienergebnissse am Geweih des Cervus capreolus. Zbl Allg Pathol Pathol Anat 88, 336-345 (1952)
53. R. J. Goss, A. van Praagh and P. Brewer: The mechanism of antler casting in the fallow deer. J Exp Zool 264, 429-436 (1992)
54. U. Kierdorf and H. Kierdorf: Der Doppelkopf, ein für das Verständnis der Folgegeweih-Bildung aufschlußreiches Naturexperiment. Z Jagdwiss 38, 244-251 (1992)
55. K.-H. Habermehl: Altersbestimmung bei Wild- und Pelztieren, 2nd edition. Hamburg: Verlag Paul Parey (1985)
56. G. B. Wislocki, J. C. Aub and C. M. Waldo: The effects of gonadectomy and the administration of testosterone propionate on the growth of antlers in male and female deer. Endocrinology 40, 202-224 (1947)
57. U. Kierdorf, H. Kierdorf, M. Schultz and H. J. Rolf: Histological structure of antlers in castrated male fallow deer (Dama dama). Anat Rec 281A, 1352-1362 (2004) (Pubitemid 39602117)
58. R. J. Goss: Inhibition of growth and shedding of antlers by sex hormones. Nature 220, 83-85 (1968)
59. U. Kierdorf, M. Schultz and K. Fischer: Effects of an antiandrogen treatment on the antler cycle of male fallow deer (Dama dama L.). J Exp Zool 266, 195-205 (1993)
60. J. M. Suttie, P. F. Fennessy, K. R. Lapwood and I. D. Corson: Role of steroids in antler growth of red deer stags. J Exp Zool 271, 120-130 (1995)
61. G. A. Lincoln: Biology of antlers. J Zool Lond 226, 517-528 (1992)
62. R. J. Goss: Problems of antlerogenesis. Clin Orthop Rel Res 69, 227-238 (1970)
63. C. Li, F. Yang, G. Li, X. Gao, X. Xing, H. Wie, X. Deng and D. E. Clark: Antler regeneration: a dependent process of stem tissue primed via interaction with ist enveloping skin. J Exp Zool 307A, 95-105 (2007) (Pubitemid 46333546)
64. H. Kierdorf and U. Kierdorf: State of determination of the antlerogenic tissues with special reference to doublehead formation. In: R. D. Brown (ed) The biology of deer, pp. 525-531, New York: Springer-Verlag (1992)
65. U. Kierdorf, H. Kierdorf and M. Schultz: The macroscopic and microscopic structure of double-head antlers and pedicle bone of Cervidae (Mammalia, Artiodactyla). Ann Anat 176, 251-257 (1994) (Pubitemid 24185363)
66. U. Kierdorf, E. Stoffels, D. Stoffels, H. Kierdorf, T. Szuwart and G. Clemen: Histological studies of bone formation during pedicle restoration and early antler regeneration in roe deer and fallow deer. Anat Rec 273A, 741-751 (2003) (Pubitemid 37238395)
67. C. Li, J. M. Suttie and D. E. Clark: Histological examination of antler regeneration in red deer (Cervus elaphus). Anat Rec 282A, 163-174 (2005) (Pubitemid 40223539)
68. C. Li, C. G. Mackintosh, S. K. Martin and D. E. Clark: Identification of key tissue type for antler regeneration through pedicle periosteum deletion. Cell Tissue Res 328, 65-75 (2007) (Pubitemid 46411911)
69. G. B. Wislocki: A possible antler rudiment on the nasal bones of a whitetail deer (Odocoileus virginianus borealis). J Mammal 33, 73-76 (1952)
70. C. H. Nellis: Antler from right zygomatic arch of whitetailed deer. J Mammal 46, 108-109 (1965)
71. T. H. Morgan: Regeneration. New York: Macmillan (1901)
72. R. J. Goss: Epimorphic regeneration in mammals. In: T. K. Hunt, R. B. Heppenstall, E. Pines and D. Rovee (eds) Soft and hard tissue repair, pp 554-573, New York: Praeger (1984)
73. A. Sanchez Alvarado: Regeneration in the metazoans: why does it happen? BioEssays 22, 578-590 (2000) (Pubitemid 30387979)
74. R. A. Liversage: Origin of the blastema cells in epimorphic regeneration of urodele appendages: a history of ideas. In: C. E. Dinsmore (ed) A history of regeneration research: milestones in the evolution of a science, pp179-199, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (1991)
75. M. Kragl, D. Knapp, E. Nacu, S. Khattak, M. Maden, H. H. Epperlein and E. M. Tanaka: Cells keep a memory of their tissue origin during axolotl limb regeneration. Nature 460, 60-65 (2009)
76. K. Muneoka, W. F. Foxa and S. V. Bryant: Cellular contribution from dermis and cartilage to the regenerating limb blastema in axolotls. Dev Biol 116, 256-260 (1986)
77. J. I. Morrison, S. Lööf, P. He and A. Simon: Salamander limb regeneration involves the activation of a multipotent skeletal muscle satellite cell population. J Cell Biol 172, 433-440 (2006) (Pubitemid 43187939)
78. C. Gargioli and J. W. M. Slack: Cell lineage tracing during Xenopus tail regeneration. Development 131, 2669-2679 (2004)
79. B. Christen, V. Robles, M. Raya, I. Paramonov and J. C. Izpisua Belmonte: Regeneration and reprogramming compared. BMC Biology 8:5 (2010)
80. F. Knopf, C. Hammond, A. Chekuru, T. Kurth, S. Hans, C.W. Weber, G. Mahatma, S. Fisher, M. Brand, S. Schulte-Merker and G. Weidinger: Bone regenerates via dedifferentiation of osteoblasts in the zebrafish fin. Dev Cell 20, 713-724 (2011)
81. H. J. Rolf, U. Kierdorf, H. Kierdorf, J. Schulz, N. Seymour, H. Schliephake, J. Napp, H. Wölfel and K. G. Wiese: Localization and characterization of Stro-1+ cells in the deer pedicle and regenerating antler. PLoS ONE 3(4):e2064 (2008)
82. M. Cegielski, I Izykowska, W. Dziewiszek, M Zatonski, M Bochnia and O Kalisiak: Characteristics of antlerogenic stem cells and their potential application. In: D. Eberli (ed) Tissue engineering, pp 51-76, InTech, ISBN: 978-953-307-079-7 (2010)
83. J. G. Mount, M. Muzylak, S. Allen, S. Okushima, I. M. Althnaian, I. M. Mc CGonnell and J. S. Price: Antlers may regenerate from persistent neural crestlike stem cells. In: L. Bartos, A. Dusek, R. Kotrba and J. Bartosova-Vichova (eds) Advances in deer biology. Proc 6th Int. Deer Biol Congr, p 161, Prague: Research Institute of Animal Production (2006)
84. V. Agrawal, S. A. Johnson, J. Reing, L. Zhang, S. Tottey, G. Wang, K. K. Hirschi, S. Braunhut, L. J. Gudas and S. F. Badylak: Epimorphic regeneration approach to tissue replacement in adult mammals. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 107, 3351-3355 (2010)
85. R. J. Goss: Experimental investigations of morphogenesis in the growing antler. J Embryol Exp Morphol 9, 342-354 (1961)
86. Z. Jaczewski: Regeneration of antlers in red deer, Cervus elaphus. Bull Acad Polon Sci (Ser 2) 3, 273-278 (1955)
87. A. B. Bubenik and R. Pavlansky: Trophic responses to trauma in growing antlers. J Exp Zool 159, 289-302 (1965)
88. M. Harty, A. W. Neff, M. W. King and A. L. Mescher: Regeneration or scarring: an immunologic perspective. Dev Dyn 226, 268-279 (2003) (Pubitemid 36158171)
89. M. W. J. Ferguson and S. O'Kane: Scar-free healing: from embryonic mechanisms to adult therapeutic intervention. Phil Trans R Soc Lond B 359, 839-850 (2004) (Pubitemid 38673751)
90. G. C. Gurtner, S. Werner, Y. Barrandon and M. T. Longaker: Wound repair and regeneration. Nature 453, 314-321 (2008) (Pubitemid 351693137)
91. D. M. Gardiner and S. V. Bryant: Tetrapod limb regeneration; In: B. K. Hall (ed) Fins into limbs: evolution, development, and transformation, pp 163-182, Chicago: University of Chicago Press (2007)
92. A. L. Mescher: Effects on adult newt limb regeneration of partial and complete skin flaps over the amputation surface. J Exp Zool 195, 117-128 (1976)
93. F. Chablais and A Jaźwińska: IGF signaling between blastema and wound epidermis is required for fin regeneration. Development 137, 871-879 (2010)
94. I. Gyurján, A. Molnár, A. Borsy, V. Stéger, L. Hackler, Z. Zomborsky, P. Papp, E. Duda, F. Deák, P. Lakatos, L. G. Puskás, L.Orosz: Gene expression dynamics in deer antler: mesenchymal differentiation towards chondrogenesis. Mol Genet Genomics 277, 221-235 (2007) (Pubitemid 46348866)
95. J. M. Suttie, P. D. Gluckman, J. H. Butler, P. F. Fennessy, I. D. Corson and F. J. Laas: Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) antler-stimulating hormone? Endocrinology 116, 846-848 (1985) (Pubitemid 15165893)
96. J. M. Suttie, P. F. Fennessy, P. D. Gluckman and I. D. Corson: Elevated plasma IGF 1 levels in stags prevented from growing antlers. Endocrinology 122, 3005-3007 (1988)
97. M. Sadighi, S. R. Haines, A. Skottner, A. J. Harris and J. M. Suttie: Effects of insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) and IGF-II on the growth of antler cells in vitro. J Endocrinol 143, 461-469 (1994) (Pubitemid 24375957)
98. L. Bartoš, D. Schams and G. A. Bubenik: Testosterone, but not IGF-1, LH, prolactin or cortisol, may serve as antler-stimulating hormone in red deer stags (Cervus elaphus). Bone 44, 691-698 (2009)
99. L. Alibardi and M. Toni: Wound keratins in the regenerating epidermis of lizard suggest that the wound reaction is similar in the tail and limb. J Exp Zool 303A, 845-860 (2005) (Pubitemid 41658467)
100. A. L. Mescher: The cellular basis of limb regeneration in urodeles. Int J Dev Biol 40, 785-795 (1996) (Pubitemid 26294617)
101. C. Li, J. M. Suttie and D. E. Clark: Deer antler regeneration: a system which allows the full regeneration of mammalian appendages. In: J. M. Suttie, S. R. Haines and C. Li (eds) Advances in antler science and product technology. Proc 2nd ASPT-Symposium, pp 1-10, Queenstown, NZ (2004)
102. K. W. Liechty, N. S. Adzick and T. M. Crombleholme: Diminished interleukin 6 (IL-6) production during scarless human fetal wound repair. Cytokine 12, 671-676 (2000) (Pubitemid 30453496)
103. K. W. Liechty, H. B. Kim, N. S. Adzick and T. M. Crombleholme: Fetal wound repair results in scar formation in interleukin-10-deficient mice in a syngeneic murine model of scarless wound repair. J Pediatr Surg 35, 866-872 (2000)
104. W. H. Peranteau, L. Zhang, N. Muvarak, A. T. Badillo, A. Radu, P. W. Zoltick and K. W. Liechty: IL-10 overexpression decreases inflammatory mediators and promotes regenerative healing in an adult model of scar formation. J Invest Dermatol 128, 1852-1860 (2008) (Pubitemid 351847365)
105. R. J. Goss: Future directions in antler research. Anat Rec 241, 291-302 (1995)
106. C. J. Pendegrass, A. E. Goodship, J. S. Price and G. W. Blunn: Nature's answer to breaching the skin barrier: an innovative development for amputees. J Anat 209, 59-67 (2006) (Pubitemid 44308883)
107. R. A. F. Clark: Wound Repair. Overview and general considerations. In: R. A. F. Clark (ed) The molecular and cellular biology of wound repair, 2nd edition, pp 3-50, New York: Plenum Press (1996)
108. C. Li: Exploration of the mechanism underlying neogenesis and regeneration of postnatal mammalian skin: deer antler velvet. Int J Med Biol Front 16, 1339-1358 (2010)
109. S. Nodder and P. Martin: Wound healing in embryos: A review. Anat Embryol 195, 215-228 (1997) (Pubitemid 27116444)
110. E. Bosch: Aspekte der Regeneration der Folgegeweihbildung beim Damwild (Dama dama) und Reh (Capreolus capreolus). Thesis, University of Münster, Germany (2000)
111. M. Singer: The influence of the nerve in regeneration of the amphibian extremity. Quart Rev Biol 27, 169-200 (1952)
112. A. Kumar, J. W. Godwin, P. B. Gates, A. A. Garza-Garcia and J. P. Brockes: Molecular basis for the nerve dependence of limb regeneration in an adult vertebrate. Science 318, 772-777 (2007) (Pubitemid 351411765)
113. G. B. Wislocki and M. Singer: The occurrence and function of nerves in the growing antlers of deer. J Comp Neurol 85, 1-19 (1946)
114. J. M. Suttie: Experimental manipulation of the neural control of antler growth. In: G. A, Bubenik and A. B. Bubenik (eds) Horns, pronghorns, and antlers, pp 359-370, New York: Springer-Verlag (1990)
115. C. Li, J. L. Stanton, T. M. Robertson, J. M. Suttie, P. W. Sheard, A. J. Harris and D. E. Clark: Nerve growth factor mRNA expression in the regenerating antler tip of red deer (Cervus elaphus). PLoS ONE 2(1):e148 (2007)
116. W. Pita-Thomas, M. Nieto-Sampredo, R. M. Maza and M. Nieto-Diaz: Factors promoting neurite outgrowth during deer antler regeneration. J Neurosci Res 88, 3034-3047 (2010)
117. C. Li, P. W. Sheard, I. D. Corson and J. M. Suttie: Pedicle and antler development following sectioning of the sensory nerves to the antlerogenic region of red deer (Cervus elaphus). J Exp Zool 267, 188-197 (1993)
118. J. M. Suttie and P. F. Fennessy: Regrowth of amputated velvet antlers with and without innervation. J Exp Zool 234, 359-366 (1985) (Pubitemid 15036742)
119. G. A. Bubenik: The role of nervous system in the growth of antlers. In: G. A, Bubenik and A. B. Bubenik (eds) Horns, pronghorns, and antlers, pp 339-358, New York: Springer-Verlag (1990)