Using walking speed in clinical practice: Interpreting age-, gender-, and function-specific norms

Topics in Geriatric Rehabilitation

Volumn 28, Issue 2, 2012, Pages 77-90

  Lusardi, Michelle M ^a  

^a SACRED HEART UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

fast walking speed; functional assessment; older adults; self selected walking speed

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ALENDRONIC ACID; AMLODIPINE BESYLATE; ATENOLOL; ESCITALOPRAM; EXENDIN 4; EZETIMIBE PLUS SIMVASTATIN; HYDROMORPHONE; IRBESARTAN; LISINOPRIL; LOSARTAN; METFORMIN; METOPROLOL; MULTIVITAMIN; NAPROXEN; OMEPRAZOLE; PRAVASTATIN; PROPRANOLOL; TOLTERODINE; VITAMIN D; ZOLPIDEM TARTRATE;

ABDOMINAL SURGERY; AGED; AORTA VALVE REPLACEMENT; APPENDECTOMY; ASSISTED LIVING FACILITY; BODY EQUILIBRIUM; BREAST CANCER; BRONCHITIS; CANCER CHEMOTHERAPY; CASE REPORT; CATARACT EXTRACTION; CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE LUNG DISEASE; COGNITIVE DEFECT; COHORT ANALYSIS; ENDURANCE; FALLING; FEMALE; GAIT; GAIT DISORDER; GASTROESOPHAGEAL REFLUX; HEART INFARCTION; HIP FRACTURE; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; JOINT STIFFNESS; LUNG DISEASE; MALE; MASTECTOMY; MOBILIZATION; MORBIDITY; MUSCLE FUNCTION; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; OBESITY; PNEUMONIA; POSTOPERATIVE COMPLICATION; POSTOPERATIVE PAIN; QUALITY OF LIFE; REVIEW; SHOE; STROKE; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW (TOPIC); TEST RETEST RELIABILITY; TOTAL HIP PROSTHESIS; WALKING AID; WALKING SPEED;

EID: 84860829629     PISSN: 08827524     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/TGR.0b013e31823d7b9f     Document Type: Review

References (90)

1. American Physical Therapy Association. Who are Physical Therapists? Guide to Physical Therapist Practice. Alexandria, VA: American Physical Therapy Association. http://guidetoptprac-tice.apta.org. Accessed 4 August, 2011.
2. Ries JD. Ambulation: impact of age-related changes on functional mobility. In: Guccione AA, Avers D, Wong RA, eds. Geriatric Physical Therapy. 3rd ed. St. Louis, MO: Mosby|Elsevier 2012: 316-330.
3. Rejeski WJ, Ip EH, Marsh AP, Miller ME, Farmer DF. Measuring disability in older adults: The International Classification System of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) framework. Geriatr Gerontol Int. 2008;8(1):48-54.
4. Dixon D, Johnston M, Rowley D, Pollard B. Using the ICF and psychological models of behavior to predict mobility limitations. Rehabil Psychol. 2008;53(2):191-200. (Pubitemid 351763801)
5. Fritz S, Lusardi MM. White paper: walking speed: the sixth vital sign. J Geriatr Phys Ther. 2009;32(2):2-5.
6. Studenski S, Perera S, Patel K, et al. Gait speed and survival in older adults. JAMA. 2011;305(1):50-58
7. Methodological issues in evaluation of innovative training approaches to stroke rehabilitation. http://www.cms.gov/deter-minationprocess/downloads/ id53TA.pdf. Accessed 5 September, 2011.
8. American Physical Therapy Association. What areTtests and Measures? Guide to Physical Therapist Practice. Alexandria, VA: American Physical Therapy Association. http://guidetoptprac-tice.apta.org/content/1/SEC5.body. Accessed August 4, 2011.
9. Wainwright SF, Shepard KF, Harman LB, Stephens J. Novice and experienced physical therapist clinicians: a comparison of how reflection is used to inform the clinical decision-making process. Phys Ther. 2010;90(1):75-88.
10. Portney LG, Watkins MP. Foundations of Clinical Research: Applications to Practice. 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall; 2008.
11. Granger CV, Hamilton BB, Linacre JM, Heinemann AW, Wright BD. Performance profiles of the functional independence measure. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 1993;72(2):84-89. (Pubitemid 23144146)
12. Andrews AW, Chinworth SA, Bourassa M, Garvin M, Benton D, Tanner S. Update on distance and velocity requirements for community ambulation. J Geriatr Phys Ther. 2010;33(3):128-134.
13. Brown CJ, Bradberry C, Howze SG, Hickman L, Ray H, Peel C. Defining community ambulation from the perspective of the older adult. J Geriatr Phys Ther. 2010;33(2):56-63.
14. Norton CC. Examination of gait. In: O'Sullivan SB, Schimtz TJ, eds. Physical Rehabilitation. 5th ed. Philadelphia, PA: FA Davis; 2007: 317-372.
15. Perry J, Burnfield JM. Gait Analysis: Normal and Pathological Fujunction.2nd ed. Thorofare, NJ: Slack; 2010.
16. Brown M, Sinacore DR, Binder EF, Kohrt WM. Physical and performance measures for the identification of mild to moderate frailty. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2000;55(6):M350-M355.
17. ATS statement: guidelines for the six-minute walk test. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2002;166:111-117.
18. Podsiadlo D, Richardson S. The timed "Up & Go": a test of basic functional mobility for frail elderly persons. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1991;39(2):142-148.
19. Farrell MK. Using functional assessment and screening tools with frail older adults. Top Geriatr Rehabil. 2004;20(1):14-20. (Pubitemid 41623199)
20. Binder EF, Schechtman KB; Ehsani AA, et al. Effects of exercise training on frailty in community-dwelling older adults: results of a randomized, controlled trial. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2002;50(12):1921-1928. (Pubitemid 35462435)
21. Delbaere K, Van den Noortgate N, Bourgois J, Vanderstraeten G, Tine W, Cambier D. The Physical Performance Test as a predictor of frequent fallers: a prospective community-based cohort study. Clin Rehabil. 2006;20(1):83-90. (Pubitemid 43246336)
22. Brach JS, Van Swearingen JM. Physical impairment and disability: relationship to performance of activities of daily living in community-dwelling older men. Phys Ther. 2002;82(8):752-761. (Pubitemid 34839990)
23. Shumway-Cook A, Brauer S, Woollacott M. Predicting the probability for falls in community-dwelling older adults using the Timed Up & Go Test. Phys Ther. 2000;80(9):896-903.
24. Steffen TM, Hacker TA, Mollinger L. Age-and gender-related test performance in community-dwelling elderly people: Six-Minute Walk Test, Berg Balance Scale, Timed Up & Go Test, and Gait Speeds. Phys Ther. 2002;82(2):128-137. (Pubitemid 34112999)
25. Lusardi MM, Pellecchia GL, Schulman M. Functional performance in community living older adults. J Geriatr Phys Ther. 2003;26(3):14-22.
26. Mangione KK, Craik RL, McCormick AA, et al. Detectable changes in physical performance measures in elderly African Americans. Phys Ther. 2010;90(6):921-927.
27. Viccaro LJ, Perera S, Studenski SA. Is timed up and go better than gait speed in predicting health, function, and Falls in Older Adults? J Am Geriatr Soc. 2011;59(5):887-892.
28. Brown CD, Wise RA. Field tests of exercise in COPD: the six-minute walk test and the shuttle walk test. COPD. 2007;4(3): 217-223. (Pubitemid 47345891)
29. Mangione KK, Craik RL, Tomlinson SS, Palombaro KM. Can elderly patients who have had a hip fracture perform moderate-to high-intensity exercise at home? Phys Ther. 2005;85(8): 727-739. (Pubitemid 41060364)
30. Enright PL, McBurnie MA, Bittner V, et al. The 6-Minute Walk Test. Chest. 2003;123(2):387-398.
31. Desai A, Goodman V, Kapadia N, Shay BL, Szturm T. Relationship between dynamic balance measures and functional performance in community-dwelling elderly people. Phys Ther. 2010;90(5):748-760.
32. Wang CY, Yeh CJ, Hu MH. Mobility-related performance tests to predict mobility disability at 2-year follow-up in community-dwelling older adults. Arch Gerontol Geriatr. 2011;52(1):1-4
33. The NIH toolbox, an instrument for assessment of neurological and behavioral function. http://www.neuroscienceblueprint. nih.gov/Accessed Srptember 7, 2011.
34. Jones LM, Waters DL, Legge M. Walking speed at self-selected exercise pace is lower but energy cost higher in older versus younger women. J Phys Act Health. 2009;6(3):327-332.
35. Latt MD, Menz HB, Fung VS, Lord SR Walking speed, cadence and step length are selected to optimize the stability of head and pelvis accelerations. Exp Brain Res. 2008;184(2): 201-209. (Pubitemid 350160247)
36. Shumway-Cook A, Woollacott MH. A Lifespan Perspective on Mobility, in Motor Control: Translating Researching Into Clinical Practice. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2012:348-380.
37. Carmeli E, Coleman R, Omar HL, Brown-Cross D. Do we allow elderly pedestrians sufficient time to cross the street in safety? J Aging Phys Activity. 2000;8(1):51-58. (Pubitemid 30075421)
38. Gorgon E, Said C, Galea M. Mobility on discharge from an aged care unit. Physiother Res Int. 2007;12(2):72-81.
39. Nagamatsu LS, Voss M, Neider MB, et al. Increased cognitive load leads to impaired mobility decisions in seniors at risk for falls. Psychol Aging. 2011;26(2):253-259.
40. Chui KK, Lusardi MM. Spatial and temporal parameters of self-selected and fast walking speeds in healthy community-living adults aged 72-98 years. J Geriatr Phys Ther. 2010;33(4):173-183.
41. Bohannon RW, Andrews AW, Thomas MW. Walking speed: reference values and correlates for older adults. J Ortho Sports Phys Ther. 1996;24(2):86-90. (Pubitemid 26255803)
42. Bohannon RW. Comfortable and maximum walking speed of adults aged 20-79 years: reference values and determinants. Age Ageing. 1997;26(1):15-19 (Pubitemid 27153910)
43. Bohannon RW. Population representative gait speed and its determinants. J Geriatr Phys Ther. 2008;31(2):49-52.
44. Ko S, Hausdorff JM, Ferrucci L. Age-associated differences in the gait pattern changes of older adults during fast-speed and fatigue conditions: results from the Baltimore longitudinal study of ageing. Age Ageing. 2010;39(6):688-694.
45. Samson MM, Crowe A, de Vreede PL, Dessens JA, Duursma SA, Verhaar HJ. Differences in gait parameters at a preferred walking speed in healthy subjects due to age, height and body weight. Aging. 2001;13(1):16-21. (Pubitemid 32241874)
46. Smith LK, Lelas JL, Kerrigan DC. Gender differences in pelvic motions and center of mass displacement during walking: stereotypes quantified. J Womens Health Gender Based Med. 2002;11(5):453-458. (Pubitemid 41246906)
47. Bohannon RW, Andrews WA. Normal walking speed: a descriptive meta-analysis. Physiotherapy. 2011;97(3):182-189.
48. Waters RL, Lunsford BR, Perry J, Byrd R. Energy-speed relationship of walking: standard tables. J Orthop Res. 1988;6(2): 215-222.
49. den Ouden ME, Schuurmans, MJ, Arts IE. Physical performance characteristics related to disability in older persons: a systematic review. Maturitas. 2011;69(3):208-219.
50. Seidel D, Brayne C, Jagger C. Limitations in physical functioning among older people as a predictor of subsequent disability in instrumental activities of daily living. Age Ageing. 2011;40(4):463-469.
51. Beauchet O, Annweiler C, Allali G, Berrut G, Herrmann F, Dubost V. Recurrent falls and dual task-related decrease in walking speed: is there a relationship? J Am Geriatr Soc. 2008;56(7):1265-1269.
52. Shimada H, Suzukawa M, Tiedemann A, Kobayashi K, Yoshida H, Suzuki T. Which neuromuscular or cognitive test is the optimal screening tool to predict falls in frail community-dwelling older people? Gerontology. 2009;55(5):532-538.
53. Shimada H, Lord SR, Yoshida H, Kim H, Suzuki T. Predictors of cessation of regular leisure-time physical activity in community-dwelling elderly people. Gerontology. 2007;53(5):293-297. (Pubitemid 47294454)
54. Fried LP, Tangen CM, Walston J, et al. Frailty in older adults; evidence for a phenotype. J Gerontol Med Sci. 2001;56A: M146-M156. (Pubitemid 32187141)
55. Soumare A, Tavernier B, Alperovitch A, Tzourio C, Elbaz A. A cross-sectional and longitudinal study of the relationship between walking speed and cognitive function in community-dwelling elderly people. J Gerontol Biol Sci Med Sci. 2009;64A(10):1058-1065.
56. Deshpande N, Metter EJ, Bandinelli S, Guralnik J, Ferrucci L. Gait speed under varied challenges and cognitive decline in older persons: a prospective study. Age Ageing. 2009;38(5):509-514.
57. Inzitari M, Newman AB, Yaffe K, et al. Gait speed predicts decline in attention and psychomotor speed in older adults: the Health Aging and Body Composition Study. Neuroepidemiol-ogy. 2007;29:156-162 (Pubitemid 351197517)
58. Duff K, Mold JW, Roberts MM. Walking speed and global cognition: results from the OKLAHOMA Study. Aging Neuropsychol Cogn. 2008;15(1):31-39.
59. Fitzpatrick AL, Buchanan CK, Nahin RL, et al. Associations of gait speed and other measures of physical function with cognition in a healthy cohort of elderly persons. J Gerontol Biol Sci Med Sci. 2007;62A(11):1244-1251. (Pubitemid 350287613)
60. Hamer M, Kivimaki M, Lahiri A, et al. Walking speed and sub-clinical atherosclerosis in healthy older adults: the Whitehall II study. Heart. 2010;96(5):380-384.
61. Dumurgier J, Elbaz A, Ducimetière P, Tavernier B, Alpérovitch A, Tzourio C. Slow walking speed and cardiovascular death in well functioning older adults: prospective cohort study. BMJ. 2009;10(339):b4460.
62. Purser JL, Kuchibhatla MN, Fillenbaum GG, Harding T, Peterson ED, Alexander KP. Identifying frailty in hospitalized older adults with significant coronary artery disease. J Am Geriaitr Soc. 2006;54(11):1674-1681. (Pubitemid 44665205)
63. Abellan van Kan G, Rolland Y, Andrieu S, et al. Gait speed at usual pace as a predictor of adverse outcomes in community-dwelling older people an International Academy on Nutrition and Aging (IANA) Task Force. J Nutr Health Aging. 2009;13(10):881-889.
64. Perry J, Garrett M, Gronley JK, Mulroy SJ. Classification of walking handicap in the stroke population. Stroke. 1995;26(6): 982-989.
65. Rabadi MH, Blau A. Admission ambulation velocity predicts length of stay and discharge disposition following stroke in an acute rehabilitation hospital. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2005;19(1):20-26. (Pubitemid 40261059)
66. Montero-Odasso M, Schapira M, Soriano ER, et al. Gait velocity as a single predictor of adverse events in healthy seniors aged 75 years and older. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2005;60(10): 1304-1309. (Pubitemid 41612425)
67. Cesari M, Kritchevsky SB, Penninx BW, et al. Prognostic value of usual gait speed in well-functioning older people-results from the Health, Aging and Body Composition Study. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2005;53(10):1675-1680. (Pubitemid 43109929)
68. Studenski S, Perera S, Wallace D, et al. Physical performance measures in the clinical setting. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2003;51(3): 314-322. (Pubitemid 36348892)
69. Simonsick EM, Newman AB, Visser M, et al. Mobility limitations in self-described well-functioning older adults: importance of endurance walk test. J Gerontol Med Sci. 2008;63(8): 841-847.
70. Cesari M, Kritchevsky SB, Newman AB, et al. Added value of physical performance measures in predicting adverse health-related events: results from the Health, Aging and Body Composition Study. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2009;57(2):251-259.
71. Ostir GV, Kuo YF, Berges IM, Markides KS, Ottenbacher KJ. Measures of lower body function and risk of mortality over 7 years of follow-up. Am J Epidemiol. 2007;166(5): 599-605. (Pubitemid 47283641)
72. Atkinson HH, Cesari M, Kritchevsky SB, et al. Predictors of combined cognitive and physical decline. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2005;53(7):1197-1202. (Pubitemid 41632521)
73. Rantanen T, Guralnik JM, Ferrucci L, et al. Co-impairments as predictors of severe walking disability in older women. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2001;49(1):21-27. (Pubitemid 32195131)
74. Friedman PJ, Richmond DE, Baskett JJ. A prospective trial of serial gait speed as a measure of rehabilitation in the elderly. Age Ageing. 1988;17:227-235.
75. Studenski S. Bradypedia: is gait speed ready for clinical use? J Nutr Health Aging. 2009;13(10):878-880.
76. Wert DM, Brach J, Perera S, Van Swearingen JM. Gait biome-chanics, spatial and temporal characteristics, and the energy cost of walking in older adults with impaired mobility. Phys Ther. 2010;90(7):977-985.
77. Kim MJ, Yabushita N, Kim MK, Nemoto M, Seino S, Tanaka K. Mobility performance tests for discriminating high risk of frailty in community-dwelling older women. Arch Gerontol Geriatr. 2010;51(2):192-198.
78. Graham JE, Fisher SR, Bergés I, Yong-Fang K, Ostir GV. Walking speed threshold for classifying walking independence in hospitalized older adults. Phys Ther. 2010;90(11):1591-1597.
79. Makary MA, Segev DL, Pronovost PJ, et al. Frailty as a predictor of surgical outcomes in older patients. J Am Coll Surg. 2010;210(6):901-908.
80. Purser JL, Weinberger M, Cohen HJ, et al. Walking speed predicts health status and hospital costs for frail elderly male veterans. J Rehabil Res Dev. 2005;42(4):535-545. (Pubitemid 43150253)
81. Hardy SE, Perera S, Roumani YF, Chandler JM, Studenski SA. Improvement in usual gait speed predicts better survival in older adults. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2007;55(11):1727-1734. (Pubitemid 350043779)
82. Schlicht J, Camaione DN, Owen SV. Effect of intense strength training on standing balance, walking speed, and sit-to-stand performance in older adults. J Gerontol Biol Sci Med Sci. 2001;56(5):M281-M286. (Pubitemid 32381805)
83. Persch LN, Ugrinowitsch C, Pereira G, Rodacki AL. Strength training improves fall-related gait kinematics in the elderly: A randomized controlled trial. Clin Biomech. 2009;24(10):819-825.
84. Binder EF, Brown M, Sinacore DR, Steger-May K, Yarasheski KE, Schechtman KB. Effects of extended outpatient rehabilitation after hip fracture: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2004;292(7):837-846. (Pubitemid 39079670)
85. Bergland A, Thorsen H, Kåresen R. Effect of exercise on mobility, balance, and health-related quality of life in osteoporotic women with a history of vertebral fracture: a randomized, controlled trial. Osteoporosis Int. 2011;22(6):1863-1871.
86. Nelson ME, Layne JE, Bernstein MJ, et al. The effects of multidimensional home-based exercise on functional performance in elderly people. J Gerontol Biol Sci Med Sci. 2004;59A(2): 154-160. (Pubitemid 38269148)
87. Lopopolo RB, Greco M, Sullivan D, Craik RL, Mangione KK. Effect of therapeutic exercise on gait speed in community-dwelling elderly people: a meta-analysis. Phys Ther. 2006;86(4):520-540.
88. Malatesta D, Simar D, Saad H, Helmi B, Préfaut C, Caillaud C. Effect of an overground walking training on gait performance in healthy 65-to 80-year-olds. Exp Gerontol. 2010;45(6): 427-434.
89. Blankevoort CG, van Heuvelen MJ, Boersma F, Luning H, de Jong J, Scherder EJ. Review of effects of physical activity on strength, balance, mobility and adl performance in elderly subjects with dementia. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2010;30(5):392-402.
90. Kemoun G, Thibaud M, Roumagne N. Effects of a physical training programme on cognitive function and walking effi-ciency in elderly persons with dementia. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2010;29(2):109-114.