International law, natural resources and post-conflict peacebuilding: From Rio to Rio+20 and beyond

Review of European Community and International Environmental Law

Volumn 21, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 44-62

  Bruch, Carl ^a   Boulicault, Marion ^b   Talati, Shuchi ^b   Jensen, David ^c  

^a ENVIRONMENTAL LAW INSTITUTE   (United States)

^b ELI ^*  (United States)

^c UNITED NATIONS   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION; INTERNATIONAL LAW; NATURAL RESOURCE; PEACEKEEPING;

EID: 84860186713     PISSN: 09628797     EISSN: 14679388     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9388.2012.00746.x     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (154)

1. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (New York, 9 May 1992) ('UNFCCC').
2. Convention on Biological Diversity (Rio de Janeiro, 5 June 1992) ('CBD').
3. Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Volume I), Agenda 21 (A/CONF.151/26/Rev.1, 14 June 1992), found at .
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5. An Agenda for Peace: Preventative Diplomacy, Peacemaking and Peace-keeping, Report of the Secretary-General Pursuant to the Statement Adopted by the Summit Meeting of the Security Council on 31 January 1992 (A/47/277 - S/24111, 17 June 1992), found at .
6. On the rate of relapse, see P. Collier and A. Hoeffler, 'On the Incidence of Civil War in Africa', 46:1 Journal of Conflict Resolution (2002), 13;
7. B. Walter, 'Does Conflict Beget Conflict? Explaining Recurring Civil War', 41:3 Journal of Peace Research (2004), 371;
8. P. Collier, A. Hoeffler and M. Söderbom, 'Post-conflict Risks', Working Paper CSAE WPS/2006-12 (Centre for the Study of African Economics, University of Oxford, 2006), found at ;
9. A. Suhrke and I. Samset, 'What's in a Figure? Estimating Recurrence of Civil War', 14:2 International Peacekeeping (2007), 195.
10. This article draws upon a series of books on post-conflict peacebuilding and natural resource management, including: P. Lujala and S.A. Rustad (eds.), High-value Natural Resources and Post-conflict Peacebuilding (Earthscan, 2012);
11. J. Unruh and R.C. Williams (eds.), Land and Post-conflict Peacebuilding (Earthscan, 2012);
12. E. Weinthal, J. Troell and M. Nakayama (eds.), Water and Post-conflict Peacebuilding (Earthscan, 2012);
13. H. Young and L. Goldman (eds.), Livelihoods, Natural Resources and Post-conflict Peacebuilding (Earthscan, 2012);
14. D. Jensen and S. Lonergan (eds.), Assessing and Restoring Natural Resources in Post-conflict Peacebuilding (Earthscan, 2012);
15. C. Bruch, C. Muffett and S.S. Nichols (eds.), Governance, Natural Resources and Post-conflict Peacebuilding (Earthscan, 2012) ('Governance');
16. C. Bruch et al., Post-conflict Peacebuilding and Natural Resources: The Promise and the Peril (Cambridge University Press, 2012) ('Post-conflict Peacebuilding'). As of the time of writing this article, the first book in the series - High-value Natural Resources and Post-conflict Peacebuilding - has been published; all other books are forthcoming in 2012, so references to chapters in those books do not include page numbers.
17. See US Institute of Peace and the US Army Peacekeeping and Stability Operations Institute, Guiding Principles for Stabilization and Reconstruction (United States Institute of Peace Press, 2009).
18. These areas largely reflect the approaches taken by other key policy statements on peacebuilding, including: Report of the Secretary-General on Peacebuilding in the Immediate Aftermath of Conflict (A/63/881-S/2009/304, 11 June 2009);
19. United Nations Secretary-General's Policy Committee, Conceptual Basis for Peacebuilding for the UN System (May 2007);
20. World Bank, World Development Report 2011: Conflict, Security and Development (World Bank, 2011), found at ;
21. United Nations, Civilian Capacity in the Aftermath of Conflict: Independent Report of the Senior Advisory Group (United Nations, 2011), found at .
22. See Report of the Secretary-General, n. 9 above; Report of the Secretary-General on Peacebuilding in the Immediate Aftermath of Conflict (A/64/866-S/2010/386, 16 July 2010); World Bank, n. 9 above;
23. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Principles for Good International Engagement in Fragile States and Situations (OECD, 2007), found at ;
24. US Institute of Peace and the US Army Peacekeeping and Stability Operations Institute, n. 8 above.
25. The Comprehensive Peace Agreement between the Government of the Republic of the Sudan and the Sudan People's Liberation Movement/Sudan People's Liberation Army (Naivasha, 9 January 2005).
26. International Trade Center (ITC), 'Exporters: Trade Statistics' (undated), found at .
27. A. Natsios, 'Sudan's Oil Crisis is Only Bashir's First Problem', Foreign Affairs (1 February 2012), found at .
28. A. Wennmann, 'Sharing Natural Resource Wealth during War-to-Peace Transitions', in P. Lujala and S.A. Rustad, n. 7 above, 225;
29. P. Collier and A. Hoeffler, 'High-value Natural Resources, Development and Conflict: Channels of Causation', in P. Lujala and S.A. Rustad, n. 7 above, 297.
30. International Labour Organization (ILO), LABORSTA Database (undated), found at .
31. See, e.g., W. Anseeuw et al., Land Rights and the Rush for Land: Findings of the Global Commercial Pressures on Land Project (International Land Coalition, 2011), found at .
32. J. Unruh and R.C. Williams, 'Land: A Foundation for Peacebuilding', in J. Unruh and R.C. Williams, n. 7 above.
33. D. Mosher et al., Green Warriors: Army Environmental Considerations for Contingency Operations from Planning through Postconflict (RAND Corporation, 2008), found at .
34. See L. Goldman and H. Young, 'Managing Natural Resources for Livelihoods in Post-conflict Societies: Lessons Learned', in H. Young and L. Goldman, n. 7 above;
35. S.L. Altman, S.S. Nichols and J.T. Woods, 'Leveraging High-value Natural Resources to Restore the Rule of Law: The Role of the Liberia Forest Initiative in Liberia's Transition to Stability', in P. Lujala and S.A. Rustad, n. 7 above, 337.
36. D. Jensen and S. Lonergan, 'Can Peacebuilding Succeed without Environmental Remediation and Natural Resource Restoration?', in D. Jensen and S. Lonergan, n. 7 above, at 3.
37. K.W.J. Rochow, 'Sartor Resartus: Liberian Concession Reviews and the Prospects for Effective Internationalized Solutions', in C. Bruch et al., Governance, n. 7 above.
38. L. Jaramillo Castro and A. Stork, 'Linking to Peace: Using BioTrade for Biodiversity Conservation and Peacebuilding in Colombia', in H. Young and L. Goldman, n. 7 above;
39. S. Bolwig et al., 'Integrating Poverty, Gender and Environmental Concerns into Value Chain Analysis: A Conceptual Framework and Lessons for Action Research', DIIS Working Paper 2008/16 (Danish Institute for International Studies, 2008), at 44-47;
40. P. Gibbon, 'Global Commodity Chains and Economic Upgrading in Less Developed Countries', DIIS/CDR Working Paper 00.2 (Centre for Development Research, 2000), at 16-17.
41. J. Lind, 'Manufacturing Peace in "No Man's Land": Livestock and Access to Resources in the Karimojong Cluster of Kenya and Uganda', in H. Young and L. Goldman, n. 7 above;
42. A. Wily, 'Resolving Natural Resource Conflicts to Help Prevent War: A Case from Afghanistan', in H. Young and L. Goldman, n. 7 above.
43. C. Webersik and A. Crawford, 'Commerce in the Chaos: Charcoal, Bananas, Fisheries and Conflict in Somalia', in H. Young and L. Goldman, n. 7 above;
44. D.M. Catarious, Jr and A. Russell, 'Counternarcotics Efforts and Afghan Poppy Farmers: Finding the Right Approach', in P. Lujala and S.A. Rustad, n. 7 above, at 467;
45. B. Ratner, 'Building Resilience in Rural Livelihood Systems as an Investment in Conflict Prevention', in H. Young and L. Goldman, n. 7 above;
46. See, e.g., C. Stahn, ' "Jus Ad Bellum", "Jus in Bello" . . . "Jus Post Bellum"? Rethinking the Conception of the Law of Armed Force', 17:5 European Journal of International Law (2007), 923, at 937.
47. Approximately 95% of armed conflicts are now internal. Human Security Centre, Human Security Report 2005: War and Peace in the 21st Century (Oxford University Press, 2005), at Section 2, VIII.
48. See, e.g., J.K. Kleffner, 'Peace Treaties', in R. Wolfrum (ed.), Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (Oxford University Press, 2010).
49. S.J.A. Mason et al., 'Stepping Stones to Peace? Natural Resource Provisions in Peace Agreements', in C. Bruch et al., Governance, n. 7 above;
50. A. Suhrke, T. Wimpelmann, and M. Dawes, Peace Processes and Statebuilding: Economic and Institutional Provisions of Peace Agreements (Chr. Michelsen Institute, 2007), found at .
51. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), From Conflict to Peacebuilding: The Role of Natural Resources and the Environment (UNEP, 2009), 5, found at .
52. Treaty of Peace between the State of Israel and the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (Arava Valley, 26 October 1994), Articles 18 and 23; Peru-Ecuador Peace Agreement (Brasilia, 26 October 1998);
53. R. Mathew and B.R. Upreti, 'Environmental Stress and Demographic Change in Nepal: Underlying Conditions Contributing to a Decade of Insurgency', in G.D. Dabelko (ed.), Environmental Change and Security Programme Report (Wilson Center, 2005), 29-39, found at .
54. Of note to this article, although not of a normative character, the UNSC also established the UN Peacebuilding Commission via Resolution 1645. See Post-conflict Peacebuilding (S/RES/1645, 20 December 2005).
55. Resolution on Women, Peace and Security (S/RES/1325, 31 October 2000).
56. Women and Peace and Security (S/RES/1820, 19 June 2008), paragraph 4.
57. See, e.g., K. Appiagyei-Atua, 'United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 on Women, Peace and Security: Is It Binding?', 18:3 American University Human Rights Brief (2011), 2;
58. M. Divac Öberg, 'The Legal Effects of Resolutions of the UN Security Council and General Assembly in the Jurisprudence of the ICJ', 16:5 European Journal of International Law (2005), 879, at 885;
59. J. Isanga, 'Counterterrorism and Human Rights: The Emergence of A Rule of Customary International Law from UN Resolutions', 37:2 Denver Journal of International Law and Policy (2009), 233.
60. Charter of the United Nations (San Francisco, 26 June 1945) ('UN Charter'), Article 39.
61. See, e.g., United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Greening the Blue Helmets: Environment, Natural Resources and UN Peacekeeping Operations (UNEP, 2012).
62. The Situation concerning the Democratic Republic of the Congo (S/RES/1856 and 1857, 22 December 2008).
63. Cambodia (S/RES/792, 30 November 1992) The Situation in Liberia (S/RES/1509, 19 September 2003) The Situation in Sierra Leone (S/RES/1562, 17 September 2004); The Situation in Cõte d'Ivoire (S/RES/1643, 15 December 2005); The Situation concerning the Democratic Republic of the Congo (S/RES/1856 and 1857, 22 December 2008); Reports of the Secretary-General on the Sudan (S/RES/1990, 27 June 2011)
64. Cambodia (S/RES/792, 30 November 1992); The Situation in Liberia (S/RES/1509, 19 September 2003); The Situation in Sierra Leone (S/RES/1562, 17 September 2004); The Situation in Cõte d'Ivoire (S/RES/1643, 15 December 2005); The Situation concerning the Democratic Republic of the Congo (S/RES/1856 and 1857, 22 December 2008); Reports of the Secretary-General on the Sudan (S/RES/1990, 27 June 2011).
65. I. Brownlie, Principles of Public International Law (Oxford University Press, 1998), 289;
66. W.P. Nagan and C. Hammer, 'The Changing Character of Sovereignty in International Law and International Relations', 43:1 Columbia Journal of Transnational Law (2004), 141, at 143-145 (noting thirteen different meanings of 'sovereignty').
67. M. Pugh, 'Challenges in Peacebuilding', in C. Stahn and J.K. Kleffner (eds.), Jus Post Bellum: Towards a Law of Transition from Conflict to Peace (TMC Asser Press/Cambridge University Press, 2008), at 116.
68. For example, G.T. Harris, 'The Era of Multilateral Occupation', 24:1 Berkeley Journal of International Law (2006), 1, at 2-3;
69. R. Wilde, International Territorial Administration: How Trusteeship and the Civilizing Mission Never Went Away (Oxford University Press, 2008).
70. See S.K. Sharma, 'Reconsidering the Jus Ad Bellum/Jus in Bello Distinction', in C. Stahn and J.K. Kleffner, n. 49 above, at 12-17.
71. R.P. DiMeglio, 'The Evolution of the Just War Tradition: Defining Jus Post Bellum', 186 Military Law Review (2005), 116, at 127.
72. Hague Convention (IV) Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and Its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land (The Hague, 18 October 1907) ('Hague Convention IV'), Articles 42-56;
73. Geneva Convention (IV) relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War (Geneva, 12 August 1949), Articles 27-34, 47-78.
74. Hague Convention IV, n. 57 above, Article 55.
75. For example, K.E. Boon, 'Obligations of the New Occupier: The Contours of a Jus Post Bellum', 31:2 Loyola of Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review (2009), 57, at 64;
76. L.L. Jubilut, 'Towards a New Jus Post Bellum: The United Nations Peacebuilding Commission and the Improvement of Post-conflict Efforts and Accountability', 20:1 Minnesota Journal of International Law (2011) 26, at 49-50;
77. H. Zahawi, 'Redefining the Laws of Occupation in the Wake of Operation "Iraqi Freedom" ', 95:6 California Law Review (2007), 2295.
78. ICJ 19 December 2005, Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda (Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo), [2005] ICJ Rep. 116.
79. ICJ 2 June 1999, Yugoslavia v. 10 NATO States (Legality of Use of Force), [1999] ICJ Rep. 124.
80. See also P.H.F. Bekker and C.J. Borgen, 'World Court Rejects Yugoslav Requests to Enjoin Ten NATO Members from Bombing Yugoslavia', ASIL Insights (June 1999).
81. The PCA also decided the Abyei boundary dispute, which was unrelated to international humanitarian law but addressed natural resources and conflict. At the request of Sudan (a State) and Southern Sudan (at the time, a non-State entity), the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) adjudicated the Abyei boundary dispute - a territorial dispute that continues to destabilize relations between Khartoum and Juba due in large part to both competing claimants to the land and oil in the area. S.M.A. Salman, 'The Abyei Territorial Dispute between North and South Sudan: Why has Its Resolution Proven Difficult?', in J. Unruh and R.C. Williams, n. 7 above. In its July 2009 decision, the five-person PCA tribunal held that the oil-rich Abyei area was part of Southern Sudan, but that the extent of the Abyei area was less than had been awarded by the Abyei Boundaries Commission four years earlier (a reduction from 18,559 km2 to 10,460 km2; the PCA decision awarded the north some of Abyei's most substantial oil fields
82. PCA 17 August 2009, Eritrea Ethiopia Claims Commission, Part 11 H, found at .
83. P.H. Sand and C. Payne (eds), Environmental Liability: Gulf War Reparations and the UN Compensation Commission (Oxford University Press, 2011);
84. F. Wooldridge and O. Elias, 'Humanitarian Considerations in the Work of the United National Compensation Commission', 85:851 International Review of the Red Cross (2003), 555.
85. E.E. Harwell, 'Building Momentum and Constituencies for Peace: The Role of Natural Resources in Transitional Justice and Peacebuilding', in C. Bruch et al., Governance, n. 7 above;
86. E.E. Harwell and P. Le Billon, 'Natural Connections: Linking Transitional Justice and Development Through a Focus on Natural Resources', in P. de Greiff and R. Duthie (eds), Transitional Justice and Development: Making Connections (Social Science Research Council 2009), at 290.
87. E. Salmón, 'Reflections on International Humanitarian Law and Transitional Justice: Lessons to be Learnt from the Latin American Experience', 88:862 International Review of the Red Cross (2006), 327.
88. T.D. Olsen, L.A. Payne and A.G. Reiter, Transitional Justice in Balance: Comparing Processes, Weighing Efficacy (United States Institute of Peace Press, 2010);
89. The Rule of Law and Transitional Justice in Conflict and Post-Conflict Societies, Report of the Secretary-General (S/2004/616, 23 August 2004);
90. R.P. Alford, 'On War as Hell', 3:1 Chicago Journal of International Law (2002), 207, at 217-218.
91. Rome Statue of the International Criminal Court (Rome, 17 July 1998).
92. See, e.g., UNEP, Protecting the Environment during Armed Conflict: An Inventory and Analysis of International Law (UNEP, 2009), at 30.
93. ICC 14 July 2008, Situation in Darfur, ICC-02/05-157-AnxA, Public Redacted Version of the Prosecutor's Application under Article 58, paragraphs 14 and 15, found at . See also paragraph 31, which states: Ensuring adequate access to water has long been an essential component of livelihood strategies in Darfur. To facilitate access to water by both humans and animals, many villagers dug communal wells or maintained other communal water sources. Militia/Janjaweed and the Armed Forces repeatedly destroyed, polluted or poisoned these wells so as to deprive the villagers of water needed for survival.
94. Openbaar Ministerie v. Guus van Kouwenhoven, Rechtbank 's Gravenhage [District Court, The Hague] 7 June 2006, AY 5160 (Neth.), rev'd, Gerechtshof 's Gravenhage [Court of Appeal, The Hague], 10 March 2008, BC 6068 (Netherlands).
95. Nieuwsblad, 'First Conviction for Trafficking in Blood Diamonds' (7 December 2004), found at .
96. See, e.g., Global Witness, 'Bankrolling Brutality: Why European Timber Company DLH Should be Held to Account for Profiting from Liberian Conflict Timber' (Global Witness, 2010), found at .
97. Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL) 25 February 2009, Prosecutor v. Sesay et al., Judgment, Case No. SCSL-04-14-T.
98. Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL) 3 March 2003, Indictment, Prosecutor v. Charles Ghankay Taylor, Case No. SCSL-3-1, paragraphs 20, 23.
99. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Paris, 10 December 1948), Article 13;
100. H. Hannum, The Right to Leave and Return in International Law and Practice (Martinus Nijhoff, 1987).
101. See also Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions, UN Principles on Housing and Property Restitution for Refugees and Displaces Persons (2005), found at .
102. M. Tignino, 'The Right to Water and Sanitation in Post-conflict Legal Mechanisms: An Emerging Regime?', in E. Weinthal et al., n. 7 above.
103. C. Bruch, C. Muffett, and S.S. Nichols, 'Fueling Conflict or Facilitating Peace: Lessons in Post-conflict Governance and Natural Resource Management', in C. Bruch et al., Governance, n. 7 above.
104. UNEP, Multilateral Environmental Agreements: A Handbook for Afghan Officials (UNEP, 2007), at 13-15, found at ;
105. A. Crawford and J. Bernstein, MEAs, Conservation and Conflict: A Case Study of Virunga National Part, DRC (International Institute for Sustainable Development, October 2008), found at .
106. UN Department for Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) and UN Department of Field Support (DFS), Environmental Policy for UN Field Missions (30 June 2009), paragraph 10; see also paragraphs 9, 11.
107. See, generally, P.H. Sand and C. Payne (eds), Environmental Liability: Gulf War Reparations and the UN Compensation Commission (Oxford University Press, 2011).
108. There is an established and growing literature on jus post bellum, but there is as yet little agreement on its origins, objectives or content. See, e.g., R. Wilde, 'Are Human Rights Norms Part of the Jus Post Bellum, and Should They Be?', in C. Stahn and J.K. Kleffner, n. 49 above, at 163-186;
109. J. Waldron, 'Post Bellum Aspects of the Laws of Armed Conflict', 31:2 Loyola of Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review (2009), 31;
110. I. Österdahl and E. van Zadel, 'What will Jus Post Bellum Mean? Of New Wine and Old Bottles', 14:2 Journal of Conflict and Security Law (2009), 175, at 184.
111. K. Boon, 'Legislative Reform in Post-conflict Zones: Jus Post Bellum and the Contemporary Occupant's Law-making Powers', 50:3 McGill Law Journal (2005), 285.
112. C. Stahn, 'Jus Post Bellum: Mapping the Discipline', in C. Stahn and J.K. Kleffner, n. 49 above, 93, at 105. Moreover, jus post bellum would form one leg of the jus ad bellum/jus in bello/jus post bellum tripod - a tripod that links it to the law of armed conflict. This might distinguish it from the law of peace in general, and peacebuilding processes involving low-intensity conflicts. Rather than integrating various relevant bodies of international law, peacebuilding envisaged as a jus post bellum might remain within the framework of international humanitarian law, although that does not necessarily appear to be the intention of Stahn and others.
113. See Report of the Secretary-General, n. 9 above; Report of the Secretary-General, n. 10 above.
114. Lex specialis is a doctrine relating to the interpretation of laws. It states that a law governing a specific subject matter overrides a law that governing general matters. See, e.g., H. Steiner, P. Aston and R. Goodman, International Human Rights in Context: Law, Politics, Morals (Oxford University Press, 2008), at 395.
115. Report of the International Law Commission (ILC), Conclusions of the Work of the Study Group on the Fragmentation of International Law: Difficulties arising from the Diversification and Expansion of International Law (A/61/10, 1 May to 9 June and 3 July to 11 August 2006), paragraph 251, found at ;
116. W.A. Schabas, 'Lex Specialis? Belt and Suspenders? The Parallel Operation of Human Rights Law and the Law of Armed Conflict, and the Conundrum of Jus Ad Bellum', 40:2 Israel Law Review (2007), 592.
117. International Law Commission (ILC), Effects of Armed Conflicts on Treaties (A/CN.4/L.727/Rev.1, 6 June 2008);
118. International Law Commission (ILC), Effects of Armed Conflicts on Treaties, Addendum (A/CN.4/L.727/Rev.1/Add.1, 11 July 2008).
119. Others have also recognized the importance of integration in the post-conflict period. See, e.g., C. Stahn, 'The Future of Just Post Bellum', in C. Stahn and J.K. Kleffner, n. 49 above, 231, at 234.
120. Report of the Secretary-General, n. 10 above.
121. See C. Bruch et al., Post-conflict Peacebuilding, n. 7 above.
122. S. Krasner, 'The Hole in the Whole: Sovereignty, Shared Sovereignty and International Law', 25:4 Michigan Journal of International Law (2004), at 26.
123. See, e.g., World Bank, Policy Options for Regulation Community Property and Community Protection Zones in Timor-Leste (Draft, October 2010), found at .
124. C. Kelly, 'Mitigating the Environmental Impacts of Post-conflict Assistance: Assessing USAID's Approach', in D. Jensen and S. Lonergan, n. 7 above;
125. G. Bouma, 'Challenges and Opportunities for Mainstreaming Environmental Assessment Tools in the Post-conflict Setting', in D. Jensen and S. Lonergan, n. 7 above.
126. J. Unruh and M. Shalaby, 'Road Infrastructure Reconstruction as a Peacebuilding Priority in Afghanistan: Negative Implications for Land Rights', in D. Jensen and S. Lonergan, n. 7 above.
127. United Nations, 'The Future We Want' (Draft outcome document for the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, 10 January 2012), found at .
128. R. Falk, 'The Inadequacy of the Existing Legal Approach to Environmental Protection in Wartime', in J.E. Austin and C.E. Bruch (eds), Environmental Consequences of War: Legal, Economic and Scientific Perspectives (Cambridge University Press, 2000), 137, at 146.
129. Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (A/CONF.48/14/Rev.1, 16 June 1972) ('Stockholm Declaration'), Principle 21.
130. Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques (New York, 10 December 1976).
131. Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Additional Protocol I) (Geneva, 8 June 1977); Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-internation
132. H.-P. Gasser, 'For Better Protection of the Natural Environment in Armed Conflict: A Proposal for Action', 89:3 American Journal of International Law (1995), 637;
133. Green Cross International, History (undated), found at .
134. Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, found in Report of the UN Conference on Environment and Development (A/CONF.151/26/Rev.1 (Vol. I), 14 June 1992), Annex.
135. One of the grievances underlying the conflict between Iraq and Kuwait was a dispute over oil, as Iraq accused Kuwait of slant-drilling. L. Freedman and E. Karsh, The Gulf Conflict, 1990-1991: Diplomacy and War in the New World Order (Princeton University Press, 1995), at 109.
136. UN List of Peacekeeping Operations, 1948-2011, found at .
137. J.A. Grant, 'The Kimberley Process at Ten: Reflections on a Decade of Efforts to End the Trade in Conflict Diamonds', in P. Lujala and S.A. Rustad, n. 7 above, at 159.;
138. A. Bone, 'The Kimberley Process Certification Scheme: The Primary Safeguard for the Diamond Industry', in P. Lujala and S.A. Rustad, n. 7 above, at 189.
139. D. Brack, 'Excluding Illegal Timber and Improving Forest Governance: The European Union's Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade Initiative', in P. Lujala and S.A. Rustad, n. 7 above, at 211.
140. Pub. L. 111-203, Sec. 1502.
141. CNA Corporation, National Security and the Threat of Climate Change (CNA Corporation, April 2007), found at ;
142. UN Press Release, 'Security Council Holds Firstever Debate on Impact of Climate Change on Peace, Security, Hearing over 50 Speakers' (April 2007), found at ;
143. UN Press Release, 'Security Council, in Statement, Says "Contextual Information" on Possible Security Implications of Climate Change Important When Climate Impacts Drive Conflict' (July 2011), found at .
144. J. Jarvie, 'Natural Resource Management and Post-conflict Settings: Programmatic Evolution in a Humanitarian and Development Agency', in C. Bruch et al., Governance, n. 7 above;
145. A. Waleij et al., 'Environmental Stewardship in Peace Operations: The Role of the Military', in C. Bruch et al., Governance, n. 7 above.
146. S. Yoffe, A.T. Wolf and M. Giordano, 'Conflict and Cooperation over International Freshwater Resources: Indicators of Basins at Risk', 39:5 Journal of the American Water Resources Association (2003), 1109.
147. M. Lehtonen, 'Peacebuilding through Natural Resource Management: The UN Peacebuilding Commission's First Five Years', in C. Bruch et al., Governance, n. 7 above.
148. K. Conca and J. Wallace, 'Environment and Peacebuilding in War-torn Societies: Lessons from the UN Environment Programme's Experience with Post-conflict Assessment', in D. Jensen and S. Lonergan, n. 7 above.
149. Report of the Secretary-General, n. 9 above; Report of the Secretary-General, n. 10 above; World Bank, n. 9 above;
150. Rio+20 United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, Compilation Document, found at .
151. International Centre of Comparative Environmental Law (CIDCE), 'Submission to the UNSCD Preparatory Commission' (28 October 2011), Recommendation 11, found at .
152. See .
153. See, e.g., H. McFann, 'What about Armed Conflict?', Outreach (2012), found at .
154. K. Boon, 'Coining a New Jurisdiction: The Security Council as Economic Peacekeeper,' 41:4 Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law (2008), 991, at 1017.