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Volumn 15, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 1-24

Protected areas and wildlife in changing landscapes: The law and policy context for NGO responses to climate change in the UK

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CLIMATE CHANGE; ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY; LANDSCAPE CHANGE; NATURE CONSERVATION; NONGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATION; PROTECTED AREA;

EID: 84859484929     PISSN: 13880292     EISSN: 15481476     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13880292.2011.650604     Document Type: Review
Times cited : (1)

References (136)
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    • Note
    • Council of the European Union, Biodiversity Post-2010: EU and Global Vision and Targets and International ABS Regime, Secretariat Information Note 7536/10 (Brussels, 16 March 2010). At the 10th Conference of the Parties (COP 10) to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in Nagoya, Japan, in October 2010, Decision X/2, Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020, used similar language to the EU target.
  • 2
    • 84859483814 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The EU Nature Directives comprise the Birds Directive and the Habitats Directive. The Birds Directive, adopted in 1979, was replaced in 2009 by the codified version, Directive 2009/147/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 November 2009 on the conservation of wild birds, OJ (L 20/7) 26
    • The EU Nature Directives comprise the Birds Directive and the Habitats Directive. The Birds Directive, adopted in 1979, was replaced in 2009 by the codified version, Directive 2009/147/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 November 2009 on the conservation of wild birds, 2010 OJ (L 20/7) 26.
    • (2010)
  • 3
    • 84859513944 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Adopted against a backdrop of declining European bird populations, it aims to take co-ordinated EU-wide action for all wild birds, both on land and at sea. Specific action isrequired for rare, threatened, and vulnerable birds (listed on Annex I) and migratory birds, the latter representing a common European heritage. Both habitat and species conservation measures are required to ensure that the ecological requirements of all wild birds are met.
  • 4
    • 84859513597 scopus 로고
    • The Habitats Directive was adopted in 1992 (Council Directive 92/43/EEC on the Conservation of Natural Habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora, OJ (L 206) 7
    • The Habitats Directive was adopted in 1992 (Council Directive 92/43/EEC on the Conservation of Natural Habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora 1992 OJ (L 206) 7.
    • (1992)
  • 5
    • 84859494342 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For the text of the Directive with later amendments, see, visited 16. August
    • For the text of the Directive with later amendments, see http://ec.europa.cu/environment/nature/legislation/habitatsdirective/indexen.htm (visited 16. August 2011).
    • (2011)
  • 6
    • 84859513602 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • The Habitats Directive requires similar habitat and species conservation measures to the Birds Directive in respect of natural habitats, wild flora, and non-avian fauna of European Community interest, listed on various annexes to the Directive.
  • 7
    • 84859483825 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Each Directive contributes its own protected area system to the EU-wide Natura 2000 network. Article 4 of the Birds Directive requires the classification of Special Protection Areas (SPAs) for species listed on Annex I and regularly occurring migrant birds. Article 3 of the Habitats Directive requires the designation of Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) for natural habitats and species of European importance.
  • 8
    • 84859513540 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • The Nature Directives use habitat conservation and species conservation measures to attain the goal of FCS for the species and habitats protected by the Directives (defined in Article 1 and required by Article 2 of the Habitats Directive).
  • 9
    • 84859495832 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • FCS has been described by the European Commission as a situation in which a species or habitat is prospering, with good prospects of doing so in the future. See European Commission, Assessment, Monitoring and Reporting Under Article 17 of The Habitats Directive: Explanatory Notes and Guidelines. Final Draft (Brussels, October
    • FCS has been described by the European Commission as a situation in which a species or habitat is prospering, with good prospects of doing so in the future. See European Commission, Assessment, Monitoring and Reporting Under Article 17 of The Habitats Directive: Explanatory Notes and Guidelines. Final Draft (Brussels, October 2006).
    • (2006)
  • 10
    • 84859481063 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • FCS is not in the text of the Birds Directive. However, the EC has argued the obligation is implicit in Article 2 of the Birds Directive.
  • 12
    • 84859513539 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • In this article, therefore, we use FCS as shorthand for the Article 2 requirements of both the Birds and Habitats Directives.
  • 13
    • 84859481062 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Even with limited implementation, the potential is clear
  • 14
    • 34547872294 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • International conservation policy delivers benefits for birds in Europe
    • See, for example
    • See, for example, Paul Donald et al., International Conservation Policy Delivers Benefits for Birds in Europe 317 SCIENCE 810-813 (2007).
    • (2007) Science , vol.317 , pp. 810-813
    • Donald, P.1
  • 15
    • 84859483824 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • The authors found that the greater the proportion of a country in SPAs (classified under the Birds Directive), the stronger the response of bird populations, especially for the rare and vulnerable Annex I species.
  • 16
    • 84859505911 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In the last ten years, the UK government has instigated reviews of different aspects of the UK regulatory system with the aim of reducing the regulatory burden: HMTreasury, Reducing Administrative Burdens: Effective inspection and enforcement (London 2005) (at, visited 9 August
    • In the last ten years, the UK government has instigated reviews of different aspects of the UK regulatory system with the aim of reducing the regulatory burden: HMTreasury, Reducing Administrative Burdens: Effective inspection and enforcement (London 2005) (at http://www.berr.gov.uk/files/file22988.pdf (visited 9 August 2011)
    • (2011)
  • 17
    • 84859481064 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Davidson Review: Implementation of EU legislation (London 2006) (at, visited 9 August
    • HM Treasury, Davidson Review: Implementation of EU legislation (London 2006) (at http://www.bis.gov.uk/files/file44583.pdf (visited 9 August 2011)
    • (2011)
    • Treasury, H.M.1
  • 18
    • 84859481065 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cabinet Office, Regulatory Justice: Making Sanctions Effective. Final report, (London 2006) (at, visited 9 August)
    • Cabinet Office, Regulatory Justice: Making Sanctions Effective. Final report, (London 2006) (at http://www.berr.gov.uk/files/file44593.pdf (visited 9 August 2011).
    • (2011)
  • 19
    • 84859483752 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Landscape-scale conservation as we use the term is not a "new way" of doing conservation. Rather, the innovation is in seeking to maximise the added value that comes from the delivery in a more integrated and spatially explicit way, and across larger contiguous areas, of separate programs of site-based and wider countryside management, thus exploiting the synergies between different individual initiatives.
  • 20
    • 84859495865 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • It recognises that it is impractical and impossible for anyone organisation to manage all the land within a landscape and that success requires multiple land managers to work collaboratively.
  • 21
    • 84859481066 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Habitat conservation measures lie at the heart of both the Birds and Habitats Directives. Both see protected areas as one part of an integrated approach to habitat conservation to secure FCS. For a fuller treatment
  • 22
    • 78649825869 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Protected areas and climate change: Reflections from a practitioner's perspective
    • see
    • see Andrew Dodd et al., Protected Areas and Climate Change: Reflections from a Practitioner's Perspective 6 UTRECHT L. REV. 141-150 (2010).
    • (2010) Utrecht L. Rev , vol.6 , pp. 141-150
    • Dodd, A.1
  • 23
    • 84859483753 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • The Birds Directive (Article 3) is most explicit in this respect, setting out a range of conservation measures required to conserve the habitats of all wild birds to meet their ecological requirements, including protected areas, habitat management inside and outside protected areas, re-establishing destroyed biotopes, and creation of new biotopes.
  • 24
    • 84859483754 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • All such measures are treated equally, suggesting the need for Member States to assess the optimum mix for any one species or group of species (something there is little evidence of in the UK).
  • 25
    • 84859481068 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • UK National Ecosystem Assessment, The UK National Ecosystem Assessment: Synthesis of the Key Findings (UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge 2011). The NEA represents the first ever attempt to assess the stock of natural wealth in the UK and how this has changed over time. It audits change in terms of both broad habitat types and in terms of the ecosystem services delivered.
  • 26
    • 84859513542 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Department for environment, food and rural affairs, natural choice: the value of nature, cm. 8082 (hereinafter natural choice)
    • Department for environment, food and rural affairs, natural choice: the value of nature, 2010, cm. 8082 (hereinafter natural choice).
    • (2010)
  • 27
    • 84859495866 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • The white paper's stated aim is to place the value of nature at the center of key choices government makes to enhance the environment, economic growth, and personal well-being.
  • 28
    • 84859513942 scopus 로고
    • NATURE IN TRUST: THE HISTORY OF NATURE CONSERVATION IN BRITAIN, hereinafter NATURE IN TRUST
    • JOHN SHEAIL, NATURE IN TRUST: THE HISTORY OF NATURE CONSERVATION IN BRITAIN (1976) at 22 (hereinafter NATURE IN TRUST).
    • (1976) , pp. 22
    • John, S.1
  • 29
    • 84859513543 scopus 로고
    • NATURE IN TRUST: THE HISTORY OF NATURE CONSERVATION IN BRITAIN, hereinafter NATURE IN TRUST
    • Id. at 12
    • (1976) , pp. 12
    • John, S.1
  • 32
    • 84859481067 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • The national network of protected areas is known as Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) in Great Britain (England, Scotland, and Wales) or Areas of Special Scientific Interest (ASSIs) in Northern Ireland. They are selected and notified under national legislation by statutory nature conservation agencies in each UK country, who must designate such land where they are of the opinion that it is ". of special interest by reason of any of its flora, fauna, or geological or physiographical features. ". Some 10% (2.5 million hectares or 6.15 million acres) of the UK is currently designated as SSSI or ASSI, with the majority of that (96%) in Great Britain: much of this is in private ownership. They range from under a tenth of a hectare (quarter of an acre) to over 180,000 hectares (444,000 acres).
  • 33
    • 84859513545 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • The SPA and SAC networks overlap to a large extent, reflecting the multiple wildlife values exhibited by those semi-natural habitats considered to be of highest conservation importance.
  • 34
    • 84859483755 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See
    • See note 20, supra.
  • 35
    • 84859504888 scopus 로고
    • NATURE IN TRUST: THE HISTORY OF NATURE CONSERVATION IN BRITAIN, hereinafter NATURE IN TRUST
    • NATURE IN TRUST, supra note 17, at xiii.
    • (1976) Nature in Trust
    • John, S.1
  • 37
    • 84859483757 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • As of May 2011, landholdings of the RSPB and The Wildlife Trusts (successors to the SPNR) total nearly 142,000 ha (350,470 acres) and over 90,000 hectares (222,000 acres), respectively. The National Trust's holdings are even greater at 255,000 hectares (630,000 acres).
  • 38
    • 84859481069 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • The Town and Country Planning Act 1947 brought almost all development under control by making it subject to planning permission.
  • 39
    • 84859502541 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, TOWN AND COUNTRY PLANNING IN THE UK, 13th ed
    • See BARRY CULLINGWORTH & VINCENT NADIN, TOWN AND COUNTRY PLANNING IN THE UK (13th ed. 2002), at 21.
    • (2002) , pp. 21
    • Barry, C.1    Vincent, N.2
  • 40
    • 84859513546 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • The National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949 established the modern system of protected areas in the UK. The government nature conservation agency created by the law, the Nature Conservancy, was required to notify local planning authorities of SSSIs so that they could, in theory, take them into account when giving consent to built development.
  • 42
    • 85040847169 scopus 로고
    • See, COUNTRYSIDE CONFLICTS: THE POLITICS OF FARMING, FORESTRY AND CONSERVATION
    • See PHILIP LOWE ET AL., COUNTRYSIDE CONFLICTS: THE POLITICS OF FARMING, FORESTRY AND CONSERVATION (1986).
    • (1986)
    • Philip, L.1
  • 43
    • 0023073719 scopus 로고
    • The loss of coastal grazing marshes in south and east England, with Special Reference to East Essex, England
    • Gwyn Williams and Mike Hall, The Loss of Coastal Grazing Marshes in South and East England, with Special Reference to East Essex, England, 39 BIOLOGICAL CONSERVATION 243-253 (1987).
    • (1987) Biological Conservation , vol.39 , pp. 243-253
    • Williams, G.1    Hall, M.2
  • 44
    • 84859483758 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Transposed in Great Britain through the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 and, in Northern Ireland, by the Nature Conservation and Amenity Lands Order 1985 (protected areas) and Wildlife Order 1985 (protected species).
  • 45
    • 84859483759 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • This two-pronged approach has shaped the architecture of all subsequent UK wildlife legislation.
  • 46
    • 84859483760 scopus 로고
    • Wildlife in westminster
    • See
    • See Stuart Housden, Wildlife in Westminster, 9(1) BIRDS 50-52 (1982).
    • (1982) Birds , vol.9 , Issue.1 , pp. 50-52
    • Housden, S.1
  • 47
    • 57249111570 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • EU nature directives: Rights, responsibilities and results
    • See
    • See Andrew Dodd, EU Nature Directives: Rights, Responsibilities and Results, 20 ENVT'L L. & MGMT. (2008), at 242-243.
    • (2008) Envt'l L. & MGMT , vol.20 , pp. 242-243
    • Dodd, A.1
  • 48
    • 84859481072 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Article 3(2)(b) to 3(2)(d)
    • See Article 3(2)(b) to 3(2)(d), Birds Directive, supra note 8.
    • Directive, B.1
  • 49
    • 84859483762 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • The SSSI provisions in theWildlife and Countryside Act 1981 were rewritten and extended
  • 50
    • 84859483756 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For England andWales, see Schedule 9 of the Countryside and Rights of Way Act
    • For England andWales, see Schedule 9 of the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000
    • (2000)
  • 51
    • 84859481071 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • For Scotland, see the Nature Conservation (Scotland) Act 2004, Part 2.
  • 52
    • 84859513548 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Article 6(2) of the Habitats Directive applies to both SACs and SPAs and requires Member States to take appropriate steps to avoid problems occurring for the protected features of Natura 2000 sites.
  • 53
    • 84859481070 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • The England target was for 95% by area of SSSIs to be in favorable condition or unfavorable but recovering condition by the end of 2010. Devolved administrations in Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales adopted similar targets.
  • 54
    • 84859481074 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • That is, the "management scheme" and "management notice" provisions set out in sections 28J and 28K, respectively, of theWildlife and Countryside Act 1981, as amended by the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000.
  • 55
    • 0003596487 scopus 로고
    • See, Leo Batten et al. eds
    • See Red data birds in Britain (Leo Batten et al. eds. 1990)
    • (1990) RED Data Birds in Britain
  • 56
    • 0343728950 scopus 로고
    • Towards a bird conservation strategy
    • Colin Bibby et al., Towards a Bird Conservation Strategy, 3 RSPB CONSERVATION REVIEW (1989) at 4-8
    • (1989) RSPB Conservation Review , vol.3 , pp. 4-8
    • Bibby, C.1
  • 57
    • 84859513627 scopus 로고
    • Species action plans for Birds
    • Richard Porter et al., Species Action Plans for Birds, 4 RSPB CONSERVATION REVIEW (1990) at 10-14
    • (1990) RSPB Conservation Review , vol.4 , pp. 10-14
    • Porter, R.1
  • 58
    • 0003024394 scopus 로고
    • Towards a habitat conservation strategy for bird habitats in Britain
    • Stuart Housden et al., Towards a Habitat Conservation Strategy for Bird Habitats in Britain, 5 RSPB CONSERVATION REVIEW (1991) at 9-16.
    • (1991) RSPB Conservation Review , vol.5 , pp. 9-16
    • Housden, S.1
  • 59
    • 84859483764 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • These sources suggest that just ten years after transposition of the Birds Directive, there is evidence that it was effective in protecting habitat at a time of ongoing losses, but they do not address the Directive's wider habitat conservation objectives.
  • 60
    • 84859513547 scopus 로고
    • Department of the environment et al., biodiversity: The uk action plan, Cm. 2428 (1994). The iconic status of this document is related at, visited 16 August 2011
    • Department of the environment et al., Biodiversity: The uk action plan, 1994, Cm. 2428 (1994). The iconic status of this document is related at http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/default.aspx?page=5155 (visited 16 August 2011).
    • (1994)
  • 61
    • 84859491017 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Initially, UK-BAP had no legal underpinning and only recently have relatively weak legal duties been placed on public bodies to "have regard" to the CBD's provisions. For example, see sections 40 and 41, of the Natural Environment and Rural Communities Act 2006.
  • 62
    • 84859502952 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, for example, Wildlife and Countryside Link, Final Progress Assessment (London, February 2011). At, Biodiversity 2010 Progress Assessment 25Feb11.pdf (visited 16 August)
    • See, for example, Wildlife and Countryside Link, Halting Biodiversity Loss by 2010. Final Progress Assessment (London, February 2011). At http://www.wcl.org.uk/docs/2011/LinkJan2011 Biodiversity 2010 Progress Assessment 25Feb11.pdf (visited 16 August 2011).
    • (2011) Halting Biodiversity Loss by 2010
  • 64
    • 84859483767 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Contained the so-called fifty-nine steps required to restore biodiversity. However, these were never translated into implementation, in contrast to at least some of the plans for priority species and habitats.
  • 66
    • 84859482580 scopus 로고
    • Making the most of environmentally sensitive areas
    • Martin Mathers & Alan Woods, Making the Most of Environmentally Sensitive Areas, 3 RSPB CONSERVATION REVIEW (1989) at 51.
    • (1989) RSPB Conservation Review , vol.3 , pp. 51
    • Mathers, M.1    Woods, A.2
  • 69
    • 0036312758 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Grassland nature reserves for breeding wading birds in England and the Implication for the ESA agri-environment Scheme
    • See
    • See Malcolm Ausden & Graham Hirons, Grassland Nature Reserves for Breeding Wading Birds in England and the Implication for the ESA Agri-Environment Scheme, 106 BIOLOGICAL CONSERVATION 279-291 (2002)
    • (2002) Biological Conservation , vol.106 , pp. 279-291
    • Ausden, M.1    Hirons, G.2
  • 70
    • 1642263452 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Climate changemeets habitat fragmentation: Linking landscape and biogeographical scale level in research and Conservation
    • See, for example
    • See, for example, Paul Opdam & Dirk Wascher, Climate ChangeMeets Habitat Fragmentation: Linking Landscape and Biogeographical Scale Level in Research and Conservation. 117 BIOLOGICAL CONSERVATION 285-297 (2004).
    • (2004) Biological Conservation , vol.117 , pp. 285-297
    • Opdam, P.1    Wascher, D.2
  • 71
    • 84859513899 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Others argue protected areas will provide important sites for colonizing species.
  • 73
    • 85033037058 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • devotes just a single paragraph to climate change in the section on energy
    • BIODIVERSITY: THE UK ACTION PLAN, supra note 41, at 93 devotes just a single paragraph to climate change in the section on energy.
    • Biodiversity: The UK Action Plan , pp. 93
  • 74
    • 84859513553 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • For example, in 1994, the RSPB commissioned the Environmental Change Unit at Oxford University to review the implications of a number of climate scenarios for agricultural and land use in Europe, focusing on the implications for habitats of conservation interest in Britain
  • 75
    • 0345228312 scopus 로고
    • The implications of climate change for biodiversity
    • see
    • see B. Briggs & Jo Hossell, The Implications of Climate Change for Biodiversity, 9 RSPB CONSERVATION REVIEW (1995) at 41-47
    • (1995) RSPB Conservation Review , vol.9 , pp. 41-47
    • Briggs, B.1    Jo, H.2
  • 76
    • 84859483769 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • It recommended the RSPB review its habitat action plans, incorporate climate change to enable adaptive responses well in advance of implementation, and identify "win-win" strategies. Suggested responses for key habitats included both in situ management and expansion through habitat creation at new locations to support the species dependent on them. Critically, it formally recognized the need for adaptation, as well as mitigation, measures.
  • 77
    • 84859491018 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, Bird Life International and WWF, Summary of Working Papers of a BirdLife International/WWF Workshop on the Impacts of Climate Change on Flora and Fauna (Boulder, CO, 19-22 September, Copy on file with the authors
    • See Bird Life International and WWF, Summary of Working Papers of a BirdLife International/WWF Workshop on the Impacts of Climate Change on Flora and Fauna (Boulder, CO, 19-22 September 1997). Copy on file with the authors.
    • (1997)
  • 78
    • 1542329839 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Extinction risk from climate change
    • For examples, see
    • For examples, see Chris Thomas et al., Extinction Risk from Climate Change, 427 NATURE 145-148 (2004)
    • (2004) Nature , vol.427 , pp. 145-148
    • Thomas, C.1
  • 81
    • 61849161684 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • An indicator of the impact of climate change on european bird populations
    • doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004678 (2009)
    • Richard Gregory et al., An Indicator of the Impact of Climate Change on European Bird Populations, 4 PLoS ONE e4678. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004678 (2009)
    • PLoS One , vol.4
    • Gregory, R.1
  • 82
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    • Performance of climate envelope models in retrodicting recent changes in bird population size from observed Climate Change
    • Rhys Green et al., Performance of Climate Envelope Models in Retrodicting Recent Changes in Bird Population Size from Observed Climate Change, 4 BIOLOGY LETTERS 599-602 (2008).
    • (2008) Biology Letters , vol.4 , pp. 599-602
    • Green, R.1
  • 83
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    • HUNTLEY et al., supra note 53.
    • Huntley1
  • 84
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    • The distributions of a wide range of taxonomic groups are expanding polewards
    • See
    • See Rachael Hickling et al., The Distributions of a Wide Range of Taxonomic Groups Are Expanding Polewards, 12 GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 450-455 (2006)
    • (2006) Global Change Biology , vol.12 , pp. 450-455
    • Hickling, R.1
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    • Climate envelope, life history traits and the resilience of birds facing global change
    • Frederic Jiguet et al., Climate Envelope, Life History Traits and the Resilience of Birds Facing Global Change, 13 GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 1672-1684 (2007).
    • (2007) Global Change Biology , vol.13 , pp. 1672-1684
    • Jiguet, F.1
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    • 84859513561 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Intergovernmental panel on climate change, climate change 2007: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. contribution of working group ii (martin parry et al. eds
    • Intergovernmental panel on climate change, climate change 2007: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. contribution of working group ii (martin parry et al. eds. 2007).
    • (2007)
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  • 88
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    • Department of the environment, transport and regions, climate change and uk nature conservation: a review of the impact of climate change on uk species and habitat conservation policy (j. hossell, b. briggs & i.r. hepburn eds, at, visited 16 august
    • Department of the environment, transport and regions, climate change and uk nature conservation: a review of the impact of climate change on uk species and habitat conservation policy (j. hossell, b. briggs & i.r. hepburn eds. 2000). at http://www.coastman.net.co/publicaciones/cc/(0071).pdf (visited 16 august 2011).
    • (2000)
  • 89
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    • RSPB, No Place to Go?
    • RSPB, No Place to Go? supra note 57
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    • 84859491028 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Europarc Federation and RSPB, Role of Protected Areas in a Changing Climate. Proceedings of a Conference and Workshop on the Implications of Climate Change for Wildlife and Habitats, London, 11-12 December, RSPB, 2001
    • Europarc Federation and RSPB, Role of Protected Areas in a Changing Climate. Proceedings of a Conference and Workshop on the Implications of Climate Change for Wildlife and Habitats, London, 11-12 December 2000 (RSPB, 2001).
    • (2000)
  • 91
    • 84859483800 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See
    • See Donald et al., supra note 11.
    • Donald1
  • 93
    • 84859513564 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Also The Woodland Trust, A Midsummer Night's Nightmare? The Future of UK Woodland in the Face of Climate Change (TheWoodland Trust, Grantham, Lincolnshire, 2001). At, visited 16, August
    • Also The Woodland Trust, A Midsummer Night's Nightmare? The Future of UK Woodland in the Face of Climate Change (TheWoodland Trust, Grantham, Lincolnshire, 2001). At http://www.woodlandtrust.org.uk/SiteCollectionDocuments/pdf/climatechangereport.pdf (visited 16 August 2011)
    • (2011)
  • 94
    • 77953509937 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Where Now in Climate and Nature Conservation?
    • Richard Smithers & Mike Townsend, Where Now in Climate and Nature Conservation? 31(1) ECOS 50-54 (2010).
    • (2010) Ecos , vol.31 , Issue.1 , pp. 50-54
    • Smithers, R.1    Townsend, M.2
  • 95
    • 84859483819 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • The latter paper sets out the personal views of the authors, one a past and one a present employee of the Woodland Trust. This issue was seen as of such significance that it was a key agenda item at the meeting of the EU Nature Directors during the UK presidency of the EU in autumn 2005 (the EU Nature Directors comprise senior civil servants from the Government departments of each Member State responsible for nature conservation policy.
  • 96
    • 30344435594 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Climate change and the birds and habitats directives: Can they work together?
    • Member States hold the EU presidency for 6 months on a rotating basis), and resulted in the RSPB making a formal submission on the topic, based around legal advice, setting out the legal, policy, and scientific case that a flexible and dynamic approach to climate change adaptation was both possible and necessary under the Nature Directives, the basis of which was summarized in Rosie Sutherland et al.
    • Member States hold the EU presidency for 6 months on a rotating basis), and resulted in the RSPB making a formal submission on the topic, based around legal advice, setting out the legal, policy, and scientific case that a flexible and dynamic approach to climate change adaptation was both possible and necessary under the Nature Directives, the basis of which was summarized in Rosie Sutherland et al., Climate Change and the Birds and Habitats Directives: Can They Work Together? 26(3/4) ECOS 86-94 (2005).
    • (2005) Ecos , vol.26 , Issue.3-4 , pp. 86-94
  • 97
    • 84859513596 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • In January 2010, the Dutch newspaper Volkskrant published correspondence between the then-Prime Minister of the Netherlands (letter dated 13 July 2009) and the President of the European Commission (letter dated 26 October 2009). The Netherlands had requested a review of the Nature Directives to strike a better balance between biodiversity conservation and economic interests, arguing, among other things, that the Natura 2000 network was too static in the face of climate change and should be more dynamic.
  • 98
    • 84859483818 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • The EC President provided a comprehensive response. On the particular point of dynamic approaches versus static conservation objectives, he argued that the Habitats Directive offered ample scope for, andrequired, dynamic approaches to enable the achievement of conservation objectives adapted to natural developments and climate change where necessary. This dovetails well with the arguments published a few weeks later
  • 99
    • 84859491061 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Dodd et al., supra note 14.
    • Dodd1
  • 100
    • 84859513600 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • The NGO response has sought to achieve objectives that are in a constant state of dynamic tension with each other. First, to protect the existing legal framework from unnecessary weakening to avoid going back to pre-Nature Directives days second, to promote better implementation of the Nature Directives to achieve improved ecological outcomes and third, to promote a more constructive view of their role in facilitating more sustainable development.
  • 101
    • 84859483821 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g
    • See, e.g., Dodd A et al., supra note 14.
    • Dodd, A.1
  • 103
    • 84859483806 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Department of Environment, Food andRural Affairs, EnglandBiodiversity Strategy. Climate Change Adaptation Principles (London), At
    • Department of Environment, Food andRural Affairs, EnglandBiodiversity Strategy. Climate Change Adaptation Principles (London, 2008). At http://archive.defra.gov.uk/environment/biodiversity/documents/ebs-ccap.pdf
    • (2008)
  • 104
    • 84859513933 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • visited 16 August
    • Lawton A et al., supra note 47 (visited 16 August 2011)
    • (2011)
    • Lawton, A.1
  • 106
    • 84859491055 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Resilience is the ability of a system to absorb disturbances, in this case from climate change, while retaining the same basic structure and function. Accommodation is the ability of a newspecies to colonise a site, or populations to increase at a site, in response to climate change. The two complementary strategic approaches define the biological outcomes required and hence the actions and policy necessary.
  • 107
    • 84859513588 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Each of these can overlap spatially and ecologically, and most can simultaneously enhance resilience of sites and populations while enhancing the ability to accommodate movement. It is important to remember that they will operate at different spatial scales, dependent on the requirements of the individual species or habitat.
  • 109
    • 84859513589 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • For example, the RSPB has bought and run a commercial farm to test and implement wildlife friendly management options offered through agri-environment schemes. In the first 10 years of operation, farmland bird numbers increased by 201%, while maintaining high agricultural yields.
  • 110
    • 84859483808 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • The Wildlife Trusts launched their Living Landscapes program in 1996 with a call to restore the UK's ecosystems to respond to biodiversity loss and the impacts of climate change.
  • 111
    • 84859513934 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • It nowcovers over 100 sites across the UK with a restore-reconnect-recreate theme. First launched in 2001, the RSPB's Futurescapes program was refreshed in 2010, as the UK failed to meet the 2010 target to reduce biodiversity loss and knowledge of climate change impacts increased. Originally positioned to give impetus to delivery of the habitat creation targets in the UK BAP (BIODIVERSITY: THE UK ACTION PLAN, supra note 41)
  • 112
    • 84859513590 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • The 2010 program goes further than its predecessor by describing an integrated approach to LSC with clear plans to improve the ecological performance of over 80 landscapes across the UK. Both programs are predicated on developing partnerships with an increasing range of other organizations that can influence land management.
  • 113
    • 84859483804 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The UK government and the EU are showing increased interest in "payment for ecosystem services" schemes, although there is little actual experience to analyze. The UK has produced an introductory summary report on the subject [Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, Payments for Ecosystem Services. A short introduction (London, at, visited 9 August 2011
    • The UK government and the EU are showing increased interest in "payment for ecosystem services" schemes, although there is little actual experience to analyze. The UK has produced an introductory summary report on the subject [Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, Payments for Ecosystem Services. A short introduction (London 2010) (at: http://archive.defra.gov.uk/environment/policy/natural-environ/documents/payments-ecosystem.pdf (visited 9 August 2011)].
    • (2010)
  • 114
    • 84859513566 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This is to be followed by a full report in 2011 which will discuss, in more detail, barriers and opportunities in the UK. Current examples of publicly funded schemes in the UK and EU focus on river restoration, flood alleviation, and providing water quality benefits. Examples described on the Internet include: (i) Wetted Land: the Assessment, Techniques and Economics of Restoration (WATER), at, visited 9 August, and (ii) Adaptive Land use for Flood Alleviation (ALFA), UK - Eden Rivers Trust, at, visited 9 August 2011
    • This is to be followed by a full report in 2011 which will discuss, in more detail, barriers and opportunities in the UK. Current examples of publicly funded schemes in the UK and EU focus on river restoration, flood alleviation, and providing water quality benefits. Examples described on the Internet include: (i) Wetted Land: the Assessment, Techniques and Economics of Restoration (WATER), at http://www.projectwater.eu/index.html (visited 9 August 2011), and (ii) Adaptive Land use for Flood Alleviation (ALFA), UK - Eden Rivers Trust, at http://www.alfa-project.eu/en/about/ (visited 9 August 2011).
    • (2011)
  • 115
    • 84859491054 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • An example of a privately funded scheme is the Westcountry Rivers Trust's Upstream Thinking Project at, visited 9 August
    • An example of a privately funded scheme is the Westcountry Rivers Trust's Upstream Thinking Project at http://www.wrt.org.uk/projects/upstreamthinking/upstreamthinking.html (visited 9 August 2011).
    • (2011)
  • 116
    • 84859491056 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Lawton et al., supra note 47.
    • Lawton1
  • 117
    • 84859483803 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Wildlife and Countryside Link, Wildlife and Countryside Link Position on Ecological Restoration Zones (February 2011) at, visited 16 August
    • Wildlife and Countryside Link, Wildlife and Countryside Link Position on Ecological Restoration Zones (February 2011) at http://www.wcl.org.uk/docs/2011/LinkpositionEcologicalResorationZones22Feb11.pdf (visited 16 August 2011).
    • (2011)
  • 119
    • 84859513591 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Dodd et al, supra note 74.
    • Dodd1
  • 120
    • 84859513594 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • This is inherent in the definition of FCS contained within the EU Habitats Directive but has yet to be adopted in the systems designed to manage the UK's protected areas, which focus on the individual protected area and its condition at the time of selection, as opposed to the need to restore the site or to increase its resilience under climate change.
  • 121
    • 84859513939 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Common Standards Monitoring. Introduction to the Guidance Manual (London 2004), at, visited 9 August
    • See Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Common Standards Monitoring. Introduction to the Guidance Manual (London 2004), at http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/pdf/CSMintroduction.pdf (visited 9 August 2011)
    • (2011)
  • 122
    • 84859513938 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • In particular, section 5 of the manual on the relationship between common standards monitoring and the Habitats/Birds Directives, and section 11 on setting targets. The need to modernize the purpose of the national system of protected areas to build in climate change adaptation was recognized by the UK Parliament.
  • 123
    • 84859491057 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See House of Commons, Committee on Innovation, Universities, Science and Skills, Sites of Special Scientific Interest (Tenth Report, Session 2008-2009), at para. 25, at, visited 16 August
    • See House of Commons, Committee on Innovation, Universities, Science and Skills, Sites of Special Scientific Interest (Tenth Report, Session 2008-2009), at para. 25, at http://www.parliament.the-stationeryoffice.co.uk/pa/cm200809/cmselect/cmdius/717/71702.htm#evidence (visited 16 August 2011).
    • (2011)
  • 124
    • 84859513592 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, RSPB Reserves 2010: A Review of Our Work (RSPB, Sandy, UK), At, visited 16 August
    • See Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, RSPB Reserves 2010: A Review of Our Work (RSPB, Sandy, UK) at 84-89. At http://www.rspb.org.uk/Images/Reservestcm9-258564.pdf (visited 16 August 2011).
    • (2011) , pp. 84-89
  • 125
    • 84859513937 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Royal commission on environmental pollution, adapting institutions to climate change: twentyeighth report, cm. 7843, para. 5.42
    • Royal commission on environmental pollution, adapting institutions to climate change: twentyeighth report, 2010, cm. 7843, para. 5.42 at 102.
    • (2010) , pp. 102
  • 126
    • 84859513936 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See
    • See Dodd A et al., supra note 14.
    • Dodd, A.1
  • 128
    • 0037047615 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Economic reasons for conserving wild nature
    • See
    • See Andrew Balmford et al., Economic Reasons for Conserving Wild Nature, 297 SCIENCE 950-953 (2002)
    • (2002) Science , vol.297 , pp. 950-953
    • Balmford, A.1
  • 129
    • 84859513593 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The economics of ecosystems and biodiversity (teeb), the economics of ecosystems and biodiversity in national and international policy making, uk national ecosystem assessment
    • The economics of ecosystems and biodiversity (teeb), the economics of ecosystems and biodiversity in national and international policy making (2011); uk national ecosystem assessment, supra note 15.
    • (2011)
  • 130
    • 84859483809 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, National audit office, natural england's role in improving sites of special scientific interest, report by the comptroller and auditor general, hc
    • See National audit office, natural england's role in improving sites of special scientific interest, report by the comptroller and auditor general, 2007-2008, hc 1051.
    • (2007) , pp. 1051
  • 131
    • 84859483815 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • IP Holman, An Estimate of Peat Reserves and Loss in the East Anglian Fens. A Report to the RSPB (Department of Natural Resources, Cranfield University, Cranfield, Bedfordshire, October, At, visited 9 August 2011
    • IP Holman, An Estimate of Peat Reserves and Loss in the East Anglian Fens. A Report to the RSPB (Department of Natural Resources, Cranfield University, Cranfield, Bedfordshire, October 2009), At http://www.rspb.org.uk/Images/Fenlandpeatassessmenttcm9-236041.pdf (visited 9 August 2011).
    • (2009)
  • 132
    • 84859491059 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • UK National Ecosystem Assessment
    • UK National Ecosystem Assessment, supra note 15
  • 133
    • 84859513595 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Specifically chapter 2 of the Technical Report on Conceptual Framework and Methodology (section 2.4.1
    • Specifically chapter 2 of the Technical Report on Conceptual Framework and Methodology (section 2.4.1 at p. 5)
  • 134
    • 18444377095 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Managing ecosystem services: What do we need to know about their ecology?
    • Claire Kremen, Managing Ecosystem Services: What Do We Need to Know about Their Ecology? 8 ECOLOGY LETTERS 468-479 (2005).
    • (2005) Ecology Letters , vol.8 , pp. 468-479
    • Kremen, C.1
  • 135
    • 84859513943 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Payments for agri-environment measures formed part, but not all, of this 8.7 billion total.
  • 136
    • 84859513598 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • UK National Ecosystem Assessment
    • UK National Ecosystem Assessment, supra note 15, at 5.


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