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Volumn 87, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 51-91

Graham on the ground

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EID: 84859118453     PISSN: 00430617     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (12)

References (77)
  • 1
    • 84859121251 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • 560 U.S.__, 130 S. Ct. 2011, 2034 (2010).
  • 2
    • 84859141156 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Foundation Supports Efforts to Ensure Fair Sentencing for Juveniles
    • note
    • After the Court's decision in Graham, the Florida Bar Foundation awarded Barry University Law School a $100,000 grant to "address the legal and policy questions raised by the Graham decision, as well as individual client needs. " Nancy Kinnally, Foundation Supports Efforts to Ensure Fair Sentencing for Juveniles, Fla. B. News (Oct. 15, 2010), http://www.floridabar.org/DIVCOM/JN/jnnews01.nsf/8c9f13012b96736985256aa900624829/74f9f 03449b09276852577b2006aed4e!OpenDocument. Identifying the inmates to whom Graham applies was one of the Barry Law School clinical program's initial challenging tasks.
    • (2010) Fla. B. News
    • Kinnally, N.1
  • 3
    • 84859137061 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Sentenced a Second Time, Man Given 170 Years: Jessie Cade's Life Sentence Voided by Graham v. Florida
    • note
    • Shemir Wiles, Sentenced a Second Time, Man Given 170 Years: Jessie Cade's Life Sentence Voided by Graham v. Florida, Citrus County Chron. (Jan. 27, 2011), http://www.chronicleonline.com/content/sentenced-second-time-man-given-170-years; see also Jeff Kunerth, Dangerous but Different: 'Lifers' Sentenced as Teens Get 2nd Chance, Orlando Sentinel, Apr. 3, 2011, at A1 [hereinafter Kunerth, 'Lifers' Sentenced as Teens Get 2nd Chance].
    • (2011) Citrus County Chron.
    • Wiles, S.1
  • 4
    • 84859137064 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judges Ponder Tricky Ruling
    • note
    • Alexandra Zayas, Judges Ponder Tricky Ruling, St. Petersburg Times, Oct. 6, 2010, at 3A (quoting Circuit Judge Chet A. Tharpe).
    • (2010) St. Petersburg Times
    • Zayas, A.1
  • 5
    • 84859137063 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Dolan v. State, 618 So. 2d 271, 272 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App. 1993) ("For anyone convicted of a non-capital felony committed on or after October 1, 1983, the term 'parole' no longer exists. " (citing Fla. Stat. § 921.001(8) (1983). at 2023
  • 6
    • 84859143955 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • There is some debate as to the question of which inmates fall within the purview of the Graham decision. I address this issue below in Part II.C. at 2023
  • 7
    • 84859142332 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Categorizing Graham
    • note
    • See also Rachel E. Barkow, Categorizing Graham, 23 Fed. Sent'g Rep. 49, 49 (2010) ("The Court [wrote] just four sentences to justify its use of the capital proportionality test in Graham's case. ").
    • (2010) Fed. Sent'g Rep. , vol.23 , pp. 49
    • Barkow, R.E.1
  • 8
    • 84859121235 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See generally, e.g., Kennedy v. Louisiana, 554 U.S. 407 (2008) (banning death penalty for child rape); Roper v. Simmons, 543 U.S. 551 (2005) (banning death penalty for juvenile offenders); Atkins v. Virginia, 536 U.S. 304 (2002) (banning death penalty for mentally retarded offenders).
    • (2008) , pp. 407
  • 9
    • 84859112057 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • May Minors Be Retributively Punished After Panetti (and Graham)?
    • note
    • Dan Markel, May Minors Be Retributively Punished After Panetti (and Graham)?, 23 Fed. Sent'g Rep. 62, 65 (2010) (arguing that in light of recent U.S. Supreme Court cases, "juveniles must be treated somewhat like the incompetent: that is, as sources of risk and objects of compassion who can hopefully be cured or treated or contained until they exhibit the competence expected from them as adults. Until that time... they should be spared the special sting of condemnation associated with the retributive rebuke commonly connected to punishments in prisons or trials as adults").
    • (2010) Fed. Sent'g Rep. , vol.23
    • Markel, D.1
  • 10
    • 84859137065 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Graham v. Florida: Justice Kennedy's Vision of Childhood and the Role of Judges
    • note
    • Tamar R. Birckhead, Graham v. Florida: Justice Kennedy's Vision of Childhood and the Role of Judges, 6 Duke J. Const. L. & Pub. Pol'y 66 (2010) (noting Justice Kennedy's consistent theme of youths as works in progress in areas such as the Establishment Clause, criminal sentencing, and due process); Deana Pollard Sacks, Children's Developmental Vulnerability & the Roberts Court's Child-Protective Jurisprudence: An Emerging Trend?, 40 Stetson L. Rev. 777 (2011) (noting the Court's recent concern for the vulnerability of children in media and criminal sentencing cases).
    • (2010) Duke J. Const. L. & Pub. Pol'y , vol.6 , pp. 66
    • Birckhead, T.R.1
  • 11
    • 84857587873 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Throwing Away the Key: The Expansion of Life Without Parole Sentences in the United States
    • Ashley Nellis, Throwing Away the Key: The Expansion of Life Without Parole Sentences in the United States, 23 Fed. Sent'g Rep. 27 (2010).
    • (2010) Fed. Sent'g Rep. , vol.23 , pp. 27
    • Nellis, A.1
  • 12
    • 84859130928 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Clemency for Lifers: The Only Road Out Is the Road Not Taken
    • Molly M. Gill, Clemency for Lifers: The Only Road Out Is the Road Not Taken, 23 Fed. Sent'g Rep. 21 (2010).
    • (2010) Fed. Sent'g Rep. , vol.23 , pp. 21
    • Gill, M.M.1
  • 13
    • 84859121237 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Compare Bell v. Haws, No. CV09-3346-JFW (MLG), 2010 WL 3447218, at *9 n.6 (C.D. Cal. July 14, 2010) ("The Court notes that application of Graham to Petitioner's case is permitted by the first exception to the Teague v. Lane, 489 U.S. 288, 109 S.Ct. 1060, 103 L.Ed.2d 334 (1989), non-retroactivity doctrine because it announced a new rule that 'prohibit[s] a certain category of punishment for a class of defendants because of their status or offense
  • 14
    • 84859141159 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Here, the Graham Court announced a new rule that prohibits a category of punishment-life without parole sentences-for juveniles based on their status and the type of offense, and the rule is thus retroactive on collateral review." (citations omitted), and Bonilla v. State, 791 N.W.2d 697, 700-01 (Iowa 2010) ("Graham applies retroactively to Bonilla because it is a new rule of substantive law clarifying the Eighth Amendment prohibition on cruel and unusual punishment.")
  • 15
    • 84859141158 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Lawson v. Pennsylvania, No. Civ.A. 09-2120, 2010 WL 5300531, at *3 (E.D. Pa. Dec. 21, 2010) ("[T]here is no indication that the Supreme Court has held Graham retroactively applicable on collateral review....")
  • 16
    • 84859143957 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Jensen v. Zavaras, Civil Action No. 08-cv-01670-RPM, 2010 WL 2825666, at *1-2 (D. Colo. July 16, 2010) ("Given the Court's recognition of the many state statutes that permit life without parole for juvenile non-homicide offenders shown in the appendix to the opinion and the premise that Graham's sentence was contrary to the majority's view of 'evolving standards of decency' it is inconceivable that this new rule will be applied retroactively to invalidate sentences imposed in those states.").
  • 17
    • 1842664236 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Mitchell N. Berman, Constitutional Decision Rules, 90 Va. L. Rev. 1, 100 n.310 (2004) ("[T]he present jurisprudence of retroactivity is widely thought to be unnecessarily confused and confusing. " (citations omitted)
    • Berman, M.N.1
  • 19
    • 84859121239 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Graham v. Florida, 560 U.S.__, 130 S. Ct. 2011, 2026-30 (2010).
  • 20
    • 84859143958 scopus 로고
    • Recidivism: The Effect of Incarceration and Length of Time Served
    • note
    • Scholars have debated whether and how prison sentence length and recidivism are correlated. Lin Song & Roxanne Lieb, Recidivism: The Effect of Incarceration and Length of Time Served, Wash. St. Inst. for Pub. Pol'y (Sept. 1993), http://www.wsipp.wa.gov/rptfiles/IncarcRecid.pdf (looking at studies showing both positive and negative correlation). Recent work indicates that there is a positive correlation between sentence length and recidivism
    • (1993) Wash. St. Inst. for Pub. Pol'y
    • Song, L.1    Lieb, R.2
  • 22
    • 79957961186 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Valerie Wright, Deterrence in Criminal Justice: Evaluating Certainty v. Severity of Punishment, Sent'g Project 6-8 (Nov. 2010), http://www.sentencingproject.org/doc/Deterrence%20Briefing%20.pdf (discussing studies showing positive correlation between sentence and recidivism rate). To the extent that prison conditions-and the experience of them over longer periods of time-contribute to an increased recidivism rate, I argue in Part II.D that juvenile conditions of confinement must affirmatively seek to promote rehabilitation.
    • Deterrence in Criminal Justice: Evaluating Certainty v. Severity of Punishment
    • Wright, V.1
  • 23
    • 84859143959 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Graham, 130 S. Ct. at 2058 (Alito, J., dissenting) ("Nothing in the Court's opinion affects the imposition of a sentence to a term of years without the possibility of parole. ").
  • 24
    • 84859143960 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Compare People v. Caballero, 119 Cal. Rptr. 3d 920, 924-27 (Cal. Ct. App. 2011) (holding that sentence of 110 years to life for juvenile non-homicide offender was not precluded by Graham), petition for review granted, 250 P.3d 179, with People v. Mendez, 114 Cal. Rptr. 3d 870, 881-83 (Cal. Ct. App. 2010) (holding that eighty-four-year sentence for juvenile carjacker was precluded by Graham because sentence that exceeds life expectancy is tantamount to life without parole).
  • 25
    • 84859137066 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Graham, 130 S. Ct. at 2030.
  • 26
    • 84859121240 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • U.S. Const. art. VI, cl. 2 ("This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding. ").
  • 27
    • 84859137070 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Parents Involved in Cmty. Schs. v. Seattle Sch. Dist., 551 U.S. 701, 831 (2007) (Breyer, J., dissenting).
  • 28
    • 84859137069 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Graham, 130 S. Ct. at 2029-30.
  • 29
    • 84859141160 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See generally Smith & Cohen.
  • 30
    • 84859137077 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Fourteen amicus briefs were filed with the Court in support of Petitioner Terrance Graham's Eighth Amendment challenge. Graham v. Florida, SCOTUSblog.
  • 31
    • 84859121241 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Graham, 130 S. Ct. at 2030.
  • 32
    • 84859143961 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Brief for The Sentencing Project as Amicus Curiae Supporting Petitioner at 14-22, Graham, 130 S. Ct. 2011 (Nos. 08-7412 & 08-7621).
  • 33
    • 84859121242 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Graham, 130 S. Ct. at 2026-27.
  • 34
    • 84859137071 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • at 2031 ("Nothing in Florida's laws prevents its courts from sentencing a juvenile nonhomicide offender to life without parole based on a subjective judgment that the defendant's crimes demonstrate an 'irretrievably depraved character.' This is inconsistent with the Eighth Amendment. " (quoting Roper v. Simmons, 543 U.S. 551, 572 (2005).
  • 35
    • 84859141161 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • (citation omitted).
  • 36
    • 84859143962 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Kunerth, 'Lifers' Sentenced as Teens Get 2nd Chance, (quoting Florida Circuit Judge).
  • 37
    • 84859137072 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Graham, 130 S. Ct. at 2031.
  • 38
    • 84859141163 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • at 2033.
  • 39
    • 84859141164 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • If judges continue to impose sentences that are tantamount to life without parole, the U.S. Supreme Court will most likely recognize an anemic reading of Graham as unconstitutional in due course. For example, in Missouri v. Seibert, 542 U.S. 600 (2004), the Court considered the question of whether a documented police technique of questioning a suspect first and then providing a Miranda warning was permissible in light of the Court's Miranda case law. Id at 604
  • 40
    • 84859141162 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The Court roundly rejected the protocol as a "police strategy adapted to undermine the Miranda warnings, " and it held this "end run" around the Court's Miranda decision unconstitutional. at 616. Similarly, if state court judges persist in imposing sentences in the wake of Graham as excessive as 70, 80, or 100 years, eventually the Court will recognize such sentences as an evisceration of its decision in Graham and an end run around it analysis.
  • 41
    • 84859121243 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See, e.g., Kris Wernowsky, Teen Rapist Sentenced to 80 Years, Pensacola News J. (Jan. 28, 2011) (on file with Washington Law Review) (describing resentencing of Graham inmate and counsel's plan to appeal the eighty year resentencing).
    • Wernowsky, K.1
  • 42
    • 84859137068 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • It is difficult to identify precisely the costs of an appeal, but mainstream press accounts of criminal cases demonstrate that, at every stage, our criminal justice system is expensive. Evelyn Larrubia & Stephanie Stassel, The Cost of Justice, L.A. Times, Sept. 13, 1998, at B2, (cataloging notorious criminal trials in L.A. County, some of which cost ten million dollars or more); Trish Hartman, The High Cost of Trials, WNEP (Feb. 24, 2011), (describing trial that may cost taxpayers $100,000 exclusive of public defender expenses and additional courthouse security).
    • The Cost of Justice
    • Larrubia, E.1    Stassel, S.2
  • 43
    • 84859137073 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Vitek v. Jones, 445 U.S. 480, 488 (1980) ("There is no constitutional or inherent right to parole. " (citation omitted).
  • 44
    • 84859141167 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The Future of Parole as a Key Partner in Assuring Public Safety, U.S. Dep't Justice Nat'l Inst. Corrections 1 (2011), The Future of Parole].
  • 45
    • 84859141174 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Id at 1-2.
  • 47
    • 84859143963 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • see also generally William J. Bennett, John J. DiLulio, Jr. & John P. Walters, Body Count (1996) (advancing theory that new wave of young criminals would increase level of violence by end of century).
    • Bennett, W.J.1    DiLulio Jr., J.J.2    Walters, J.P.3
  • 48
    • 84929066429 scopus 로고
    • The Politics of Prison Crowding
    • note
    • Jeff Bleich, The Politics of Prison Crowding, 77 Calif. L. Rev. 1125, 1147-48 (1989) (describing states abolishing parole during this period); The Future of Parole, at 1-2.
    • (1989) Calif. L. Rev. , vol.77
    • Bleich, J.1
  • 49
    • 0003749707 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Trends in State Parole, 1990-2000
    • note
    • Timothy A. Huges et al., Trends in State Parole, 1990-2000, Bureau Just. Stat. 1 (Oct. 2001), http://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/tsp00.pdf.
    • (2001) Bureau Just. Stat. , pp. 1
    • Huges, T.A.1
  • 50
    • 70350608367 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Death Is Not Different: The Transfer of Juvenile Offenders to Adult Criminal Courts
    • note
    • Christopher Mallett, Death Is Not Different: The Transfer of Juvenile Offenders to Adult Criminal Courts, 43 Crim. L. Bull. 523, 532 (2007) ("[A]dult prison systems offer few treatment modalities to inmates. ").
    • (2007) Crim. L. Bull. , vol.43
    • Mallett, C.1
  • 51
    • 84859121244 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Kunerth, 'Lifers' Sentenced as Teens Get 2nd Chance, (noting that those serving life terms "go to the end of the line" to receive rehabilitative resources).
  • 52
    • 84859143964 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Raising Children Behind Bars
    • note
    • See generally Editorial, Raising Children Behind Bars, N.Y. Times, Nov. 20, 2007, at A22; Jailing Juveniles: The Dangers of Incarcerating Youth in Adult Jails in America, Campaign for Youth Just. (2007), http://www.campaignforyouthjustice.org/documents/CFYJNR_JailingJuveniles.pdf [hereinafter Jailing Juveniles]; The Rest of Their Lives: Life Without Parole for Child Offenders in the United States, Amnesty Int'l (2005), http://www.amnestyusa.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/therestoftheirlives.pdf [hereinafter The Rest of Their Lives].
    • (2007) N.Y. Times
  • 53
    • 84859137074 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Jailing Juveniles, at 24-37 (discussing dangers for youths in adult jails and identifying policies state-by-state).
  • 54
    • 84859141169 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Jailing Juveniles, at 10 (noting juveniles in jail are also nineteen times more likely to commit suicide than adults in the same general population).
  • 55
    • 84859141171 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Graham v. Florida, 560 U.S.__, 130 S. Ct. 2011, 2032 (2010).
  • 56
    • 79957811113 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A Century of Juvenile Justice: A Work in Progress or a Revolution that Failed?
    • note
    • Improving juvenile conditions of confinement is only one of many issues that demand reform within the realm of juvenile justice. A full discussion of juveniles in the criminal justice system is outside the scope of this paper. There is a wide body of literature on the topic. Barry C. Feld, A Century of Juvenile Justice: A Work in Progress or a Revolution that Failed?, 34 N. Ky. L. Rev. 189 (2007); Christopher Slobogin & Mark R. Fondacaro, Juvenile Justice: The Fourth Option, 95 Iowa L. Rev. 1 (2009); The Consequences Aren't Minor: The Impact of Trying Youth as Adults and Strategies for Reform, Campaign for Youth Just. (2007), http://www.campaignforyouthjustice.org/documents/CFYJNR_ConsequencesMinor.pdf; Jailing Juveniles.
    • (2007) N. Ky. L. Rev. , vol.34 , pp. 189
    • Feld, B.C.1
  • 57
    • 79957856945 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Social Welfare and Fairness in Juvenile Crime Regulation
    • note
    • Elizabeth S. Scott & Laurence Steinberg, Social Welfare and Fairness in Juvenile Crime Regulation, 71 La. L. Rev. 35, 64 (2010) (noting that only five percent of youth are incipient career criminals).
    • (2010) La. L. Rev. , vol.71
    • Scott, E.S.1    Steinberg, L.2
  • 58
    • 84859143966 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • at 65 (discussing the need for "[h]ealthy social contexts" and enabling the "process of development toward psychosocial maturity").
  • 59
    • 48849089950 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Reforming Juvenile Delinquency Treatment to Enhance Rehabilitation, Personal Accountability and Public Safety
    • note
    • See generally Douglas E. Abrams, Reforming Juvenile Delinquency Treatment to Enhance Rehabilitation, Personal Accountability and Public Safety, 84 Or. L. Rev. 1001, 1064-70 (2005) (describing the Missouri model and its success); see also Charlyn Bohland, No Longer a Child: Juvenile Incarceration in America, 39 Cap. U. L. Rev. 193, 221-24 (2011).
    • (2005) Or. L. Rev. , vol.84
    • Abrams, D.E.1
  • 60
    • 84859121248 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Bohland, at 223.
  • 61
    • 84859143967 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Juvenile Justice Reform: Making the "Missouri Model" an American Model
    • note
    • Marian Wright Edelman, Juvenile Justice Reform: Making the "Missouri Model" an American Model, Huffington Post (Mar. 15, 2010, 9:50 AM), http://www.huffingtonpost.com/marian-wright-edelman/juvenile-justice-reform-m_b_498976.html.
    • (2010) Huffington Post
    • Edelman, M.W.1
  • 63
    • 84859133938 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Missouri Model: Reinventing the Practice of Rehabilitating Youthful Offenders
    • Richard A. Mendel, The Missouri Model: Reinventing the Practice of Rehabilitating Youthful Offenders, Annie E. Casey Found. 51-52 (2010), http://www.aecf.org/~/media/Pubs/Initiatives/Juvenile%20Detention%20Alternatives%20Initiative/ MOModel/MO_Fullreport_webfinal.pdf.
    • (2010) Annie E. Casey Found , pp. 51-52
    • Mendel, R.A.1
  • 64
    • 0003469774 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • World Prison Population List
    • note
    • Roy Walmsley, World Prison Population List, King's C. London Int'l Centre for Prison Stud. 1 (8th ed. 2009) (citing incarceration rate of 756 per 100,000 in population), http://www.kcl.ac.uk/depsta/law/research/icps/downloads/wppl-8th_41.pdf.
    • (2009) King's C. London Int'l Centre for Prison Stud. , pp. 1
    • Walmsley, R.1
  • 65
    • 84859141170 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A Billion Dollars and Growing: Why Prison Bonding Is Tougher on Florida's Taxpayers than on Crime
    • note
    • A Billion Dollars and Growing: Why Prison Bonding Is Tougher on Florida's Taxpayers than on Crime, Collins Center for Pub. Pol'y 5 (2011) (citation omitted), http://www.collinscenter.org/resource/resmgr/prison_bonding/prisonbondingreport.pdf.
    • (2011) Collins Center for Pub. Pol'y , pp. 5
  • 66
    • 84859141166 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Excessive Sentences
    • note
    • Excessive Sentences, Equal Just. Initiative, http://www.eji.org/eji/prisons/excessivesentences (last visited Dec. 27, 2011).
    • Equal Just. Initiative
  • 67
    • 84890260705 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • No Easy Fix for State Prison Crisis
    • note
    • Jack Dolan & Carol J. Williams, No Easy Fix for State Prison Crisis, L.A. Times, May 25, 2011, at A1 (noting that policy changes are required to stem the number of people entering California's prisons and citing parole violations and three-strikes as driving factors).
    • (2011) L.A. Times
    • Dolan, J.1    Williams, C.J.2
  • 68
    • 84859121245 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Brown v. Plata, 563 U.S.__, 131 S. Ct. 1910, 1947 (2011).
  • 69
    • 84859121246 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Elected officials in general reflect the sentiment of the majority. John Hart Ely, Democracy and Distrust: A Theory of Judicial Review 135 (1980) ("No matter how open the process, those with most of the votes are in a position to vote themselves advantages at the expense of the others, or otherwise to refuse to take their interests into account. ").
  • 70
    • 79952321764 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Promoting Democracy in Prosecution
    • note
    • Russell M. Gold, Promoting Democracy in Prosecution, 86 Wash. L. Rev. 69, 92 (2011) ("Because there is no political benefit from appearing soft on crime and because there may be quite a cost, politicians compete for the tough-on-crime label by continually 'enacting ever more numerous, more severe, and more expansive criminal laws.'" (citations omitted); Michael A. Simons, Sense and Sentencing: Our Imprisonment Epidemic, 25 J. C.R. & Econ. Dev. 153, 157-58 (2010) (discussing recent increase in rate of incarceration and related "tough on crime" rhetoric).
    • (2011) Wash. L. Rev. , vol.86
    • Gold, R.M.1
  • 71
    • 77954379812 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Countering the Majoritarian Difficulty
    • note
    • Amanda Frost & Stefanie A. Lindquist, Countering the Majoritarian Difficulty, 96 Va. L. Rev. 719, 731-40 (2010) (discussing the evidence that suggests elected judges are, in fact, influenced by majority preferences, especially in comparison to appointed judges); see also John Schwartz, Effort Begun to Abolish the Election of Judges, N.Y. Times, Dec. 24, 2009, at A12 (describing the lack of independence with elected judges). For a discussion of the problem of "judge override" in combination with the dynamic of elected judges, see The Death Penalty in Alabama: Judge Override, Equal Just. Initiative 13-14 (July 2011), http://eji.org/eji/files/Override_Report.pdf.
    • (2010) Va. L. Rev. , vol.96
    • Frost, A.1    Lindquist, S.A.2
  • 72
    • 84859115090 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judicial Selection from a Political Science Perspective
    • note
    • Anthony Champagne, Judicial Selection from a Political Science Perspective, 64 Ark. L. Rev. 221, 236-37 (2011) (citing two studies that found "judges in politically competitive states might be inclined to be sensitive to an electorate's tough-on-crime views"); Amanda Frost, Defending the Majoritarian Court, 2010 Mich. St. L. Rev. 757, 760 (2010) ("Empirical studies demonstrate that elected judges issue longer sentences and are more likely to impose the death penalty as elections approach, presumably because they fear being labeled 'soft on crime' by their opponent in the next election. Their concerns are reasonable; judges have lost election because they were perceived as too lenient on criminal defendants. " (citation omitted).
    • (2011) Ark. L. Rev. , vol.64
    • Champagne, A.1
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    • note
    • Brown v. Plata, 563 U.S.__, 131 S. Ct. 1910, 1924 (2011) ("A psychiatric expert reported observing an inmate who had been held in such a cage for nearly 24 hours, standing in a pool of his own urine, unresponsive and nearly catatonic. Prison officials explained they had 'no place to put him.'" (citation omitted); ("A prisoner with severe abdominal pain died after a 5-week delay in referral to a specialist; a prisoner with 'constant and extreme' chest pain died after an 8-hour delay in evaluation by a doctor; and a prisoner died of testicular cancer after a 'failure of MDs to work up for cancer in a young man with 17 months of testicular pain.'" (citation omitted).
  • 75
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    • Show, Don't Tell: Do Photographs of California's Overcrowded Prisons Belong in a Supreme Court Decision About Those Prisons?
    • note
    • at 1949-50 (images show severe overcrowding in makeshift "cells" and "dry cages/holding cells for people waiting for mental health crisis bed"). For an interesting piece on the question of whether the appended photographs help or hurt the majority's position, see Dahlia Lithwick, Show, Don't Tell: Do Photographs of California's Overcrowded Prisons Belong in a Supreme Court Decision About Those Prisons?, Slate (May 23, 2011), http://www.slate.com/id/2295331.
    • (2011) Slate
    • Lithwick, D.1
  • 76
    • 77953782042 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See generally Boruchowitz et al., Minor Crimes, Massive Waste,; Smart Reform is Possible,; see also Robert C. Boruchowitz, Diverting and Reclassifying Misdemeanors Could Save $1 Billion Per Year: Reducing the Need for and Cost of Appointed Counsel, Am. Const. Soc'y (Dec. 2010), http://www.acslaw.org/sites/default/files/Boruchowitz_-_Misdemeanors.pdf.
    • Minor Crimes, Massive Waste
    • Boruchowitz1
  • 77
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    • note
    • The Plata Court noted that the two consolidated cases under its review had been in the courts for decades, yet had failed to generate reform. 131 S. Ct. at 1926-27 (One case had been filed in 1990, the other in 2001.).


* 이 정보는 Elsevier사의 SCOPUS DB에서 KISTI가 분석하여 추출한 것입니다.