Not by science alone: Why orangutan conservationists must think outside the box

Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences

Volumn 1249, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 29-44

  Meijaard, Erik ^a,b   Wich, Serge ^c,d   Ancrenaz, Marc ^e   Marshall, Andrew J ^f  

^a Jalan Raya Petitenget 1000X   (Indonesia)

^b AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^c Sumatran Orangutan Conserv Prog   (Indonesia)

^d UNIVERSITY OF ZURICH   (Switzerland)

^e Kinabatangan Orangutan Conservation Project   (Malaysia)

^f UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Deforestation; Great apes; Hunting; Indonesia; Malaysia; Nongovernmental organizations; Orangutan; Palm oil; Plantations; Pongo abelii; Pongo pygmaeus

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL HUNTING; ARTICLE; BORNEO; DEFORESTATION; DENSITY; GOVERNMENT; HABITAT; INDONESIA; LAW ENFORCEMENT; MALAYSIA; NONHUMAN; ORANG UTAN; SCIENCE; SPECIES CONSERVATION; SPECIES DISTRIBUTION;

ANIMALIA; HOMINIDAE; PONGO PYGMAEUS; PONGO PYGMAEUS ABELII;

EID: 84857466986     PISSN: 00778923     EISSN: 17496632     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06288.x     Document Type: Article

References (101)

1. Harrison, T. 2010. Apes among the tangled branches of human origins. Science 327: 532-534.
2. Wood, B. & T. Harrison 2011. The evolutionary context of the first hominins. Nature 470: 347-352.
3. Grehan, J.R. & J.H. Schwartz 2009. Evolution of the second orangutan: phylogeny and biogeography of hominid origins. J. Biogeogr. 36: 1823-1844.
4. Hobolth, A., J.Y. Dutheil, J. Hawks, et al 2011. Incomplete lineage sorting patterns among human, chimpanzee, and orangutan suggest recent orangutan speciation and widespread selection. Genome Res. 21: 349-356. doi:.
5. Petraglia, M.D., M. Haslam, D.Q. Fuller, et al 2010. Out of Africa: new hypotheses and evidence for the dispersal of Homo sapiens along the Indian Ocean rim. Ann. Hum. Biol. 37: 288-311.
6. Jablonski, N.G. 1993. Quaternary environments and the evolution of primates in East Asia, with notes on two new specimens of fossil Cercopithecidae from China. Folia Primatol. 60: 118-132.
7. Patnaik, R. & P. Chauhan 2009. India at the cross-roads of human evolution. J. Biosc. 34: 729-747.
8. Barry, J.C., M.L.E. Morgan, L.J. Flynn, et al 2002. Faunal and environmental change in the late Miocene Siwaliks of northern Pakistan. Paleobiol. 28: 1-71.
9. Kahlke, H.D. 1972. A review of the Pleistocene history of the orangutan. Asian Perspect. 15: 5-15.
10. Steiper, M.E. 2006. Population history, biogeography, and taxonomy of orangutans (Genus: Pongo) based on a population genetic meta-analysis of multiple loci. J. Hum. Evol. 50: 509-522.
11. Goossens, B., L. Chikhi, M. Ancrenaz, et al 2006. Genetic signature of anthropogenic population collapse in orang-utans - art. no. e25. PLoS Biol. 4: 285-291.
12. Meijaard, E., A. Welsh, M. Ancrenaz, et al 2010. Declining orangutan encounter rates from Wallace to the present suggest the species was once more abundant. Plos ONE. 5: e12042.
13. Rijksen, H.D. & E. Meijaard 1999. Our vanishing relative. In The Status of Wild Orang-Utans at the Close of the Twentieth Century. Kluwer Academic Publishers. Dordrecht, The Netherlands
14. Hooijer, D.A. 1960. The orang utan in Niah Cave pre-history. Sarawak Mus. J. 9: 408-419.
15. Piper, P.J. & R.J. Rabett 2009. Hunting in a tropical rainforest: evidence from the terminal pleistocene at Lobang Hangus, Niah Caves, Sarawak. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 19: 551-565.
16. IUCN. 2010. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.2. Available at:, Accessed 24/8/2010.
17. Wich, S.A., E. Meijaard, A.J. Marshall, et al 2008. Distribution and conservation status of the orang-utan (Pongo spp.) on Borneo and Sumatra: how many remain? Oryx. 42: 329-339.
18. Nantha, H.S. & C. Tisdell 2009. The orangutan-oil palm conflict: economic constraints and opportunities for conservation. Biod. Conserv. 18: 487-502.
19. WWF. 2011. Orangutans and oil palm plantations. Available at: Accessed 15/2/2011.
20. Reynolds, V.A. 1967. The Apes. The Gorilla, Chimpanzee, Orangutan, and Gibbon. Their History and their World. Harper & Row. New York
21. Schaller, G.B. 1961. The orangutan in Sarawak. Zoologica 46: 73-82.
22. MacKinnon, K.S. 1986. Conservation status of Indonesian primates. Primate Eye 29: 30-35.
23. Borner, M. 1976. Sumatra's orang-utans. Oryx 13: 290-293.
24. Meijaard, E., K. Mengersen, D. Buchori, et al 2011. Why don't we ask? A complementary method for assessing the status of great apes. PloS One 6: e18008.
25. Ancrenaz, M., O. Gimenez, L. Ambu, et al 2005. Aerial surveys give new estimates for orangutans in Sabah, Malaysia. PLoS Biol. 3: e3.
26. Ancrenaz, M., B. Goossens, O. Gimenez, et al 2004. Determination of ape distribution and population size using ground and aerial surveys: a case study with orang-utans in lower Kinabatangan, Sabah, Malaysia. Anim. Conserv. 7: 375-385.
27. Ancrenaz, M. & I. Lackman-Ancrenaz 2004. Orang-utan status in Sabah: distribution and population size. Kinabatangan Orang-utan Conservation Project. Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
28. Meijaard, E. & S. Wich 2007. Putting orang-utan population trends into perspective. Curr. Biol. 17: R540.
29. Wich, S. A., R. Buij & C. P. van Schaik 2004. Determinants of orangutan density in the dryland forests of the Leuser Ecosystem. Primates 45: 177-182.
30. Marshall, A.J., Nardiyono, L.M. Engstrom, et al 2006. The blowgun is mightier than the chainsaw in determining population density of Bornean orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus morio) in the forests of East Kalimantan. Biol. Conserv. 129: 566-578.
31. Husson, S.J., S.A. Wich, A.J. Marshall, et al 2009. Orangutan distribution, density, abundance and impacts of disturbance. In Orangutans: Geographic Variation in Behavioral Ecology and Conservation. S.A. Wich, S.U. Atmoko, T.M. Setia & C.P. van Schaik, eds.: 77-96. Oxford University Press. Oxford, UK
32. Matsubayashi, H., A.H. Ahmad, N. Wakamatsu, et al 2011. Natural-licks use by orangutans and conservation of their in Bornean tropical production forest. Raff. Bull. Zool. 59: 109-115.
33. Knop, E., P.I. Ward & S.A. Wich 2004. A comparison of orang-utan density in a logged and unlogged forest on Sumatra. Biol. Conserv. 120: 187-192.
34. Payne, J. 1990. Rarity and extinctions of large mammals in Malaysian rainforests. Proceedings of the International Conference on Tropical Biodiversity, "In Harmony with Nature." Y.S. Kheong & L. S. Win, eds.: 310-320. 12-16 June 1990, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
35. van Schaik, C.P., A. Priatna & D. Priatna 1995. Population estimates and habitat preferences of orang-utans based on line transects of nests. In The Neglected Ape. R.D. Nadler, B.F.M. Galdikas, L.K. Sheeran, & N. Rosen, eds.: 109-116. Plenum Press. New York
36. van Schaik, C.P., S.A. Wich, S.S. Utami, et al 2005. A simple alternative to line transects of nests for estimating orangutan densities. Primates 46: 249-254.
37. Buij, R., I. Singleton, E. Krakauer, et al 2003. Rapid assessment of orangutan density. Biol. Conserv. 114: 103-113.
38. Ancrenaz, M. 2007. Orangutan aerial survey in Sebangau National Park, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. KOCP. Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia.
39. Mathewson, PD., S.N. Spehar, E. Meijaard, et al 2008. Evaluating orangutan census techniques using nest decay rates: implications for population estimates. Ecol. Appl. 18: 208-221.
40. Boyko, R.H. & A.J. Marshall 2010. Using simulation models to evaluate ape nest survey techniques. PloS One 5: e10754.
41. Marshall, A.J. & E. Meijaard 2009. Orangutan nest surveys: the devil is in the details. Oryx 43: 416-418.
42. Spehar, S.N., P.D. Mathewson, Nuzuar, et al 2010. Estimating orangutan densities using the standing crop and marked nest count methods: lessons learned for conservation. Biotropica 42: 748-757.
43. Koh, L.P., J. Miettinen, S.C. Liew, et al 2011. Remotely sensed evidence of tropical peatland conversion to oil palm. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 108: 5127-5132.
44. Felton, A.M., L.M. Engstrom, A. Felton, et al 2003. Orangutan population density, forest structure and fruit availability in hand-logged and unlogged peat swamp forests in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Biol. Conserv. 114: 91-101.
45. Ancrenaz, M., L. Ambu, I. Sunjoto, et al 2010. Recent surveys in the forests of Ulu Segama Malua, Sabah, Malaysia, show that orang-utans (P. p. morio) can be maintained in slightly logged forests. PloS One 5: e11510.
46. Meijaard, E., G. Albar, Y. Rayadin, et al 2010. Unexpected ecological resilience in Bornean Orangutans and implications for pulp and paper plantation management. PloS One 5: e12813.
47. Marshall, A.J., R. Lacy, M. Ancrenaz, et al 2009. Orangutan population biology, life history, and conservation. Perspectives from population viability analysis models. In Orangutans: Geographic Variation in Behavioral Ecology and Conservation. S.A. Wich, S.U. Atmoko, T.M. Setia & C.P. van Schaik, eds.: 311-326. Oxford University Press. Oxford, UK
48. Meijaard, E., D. Buchori, Y. Hadiprakoso, et al 2011. Quantifying killing of orangutans and human-orangutan conflict in Kalimantan, Indonesia. PLoS One. In press.
49. Russon, A.E. 2009. Orangutan rehabilitation and reintroduction. In Orangutans. Geographic Variation in Behavioral Ecology and Conservation. S.A. Wich, S.U. Atmoko, T.M. Setia & C.P. van Schaik, eds.: 327-350. Oxford University Press. Oxford, UK
50. Curran, L.M., S.N. Trigg, A.K. McDonald, et al 2004. Lowland forest loss in protected areas of Indonesian Borneo. Science 303: 1000-1003.
51. Meijaard, E. & D. Sheil 2008. Cuddly animals don't persuade poor people to back conservation. Nature 454: 159.
52. Ancrenaz, M., I. Lackman-Ancrenaz & H. Elahan 2006. Seed spitting and seed swallowing by wild orang-utans (Pongo pygmaeus morio) in Sabah, Malaysia. J. Trop. Biol. Conserv. 2: 65-70.
53. Galdikas, B.M.F. 1982. Orang utans as seed dispersers at Tanjung Puting, Central Kalimantan: Implications for conservation. In The Orang Utan: Its Biology and Conservation. L.E.M. de Boer Ed.: 285-298. Springer. New York
54. Ancrenaz, M., L. Dabek & S. O'Neil 2007. The costs of exclusion: recognizing a role for local communities in biodiversity conservation. PLoS Biol. 5: 2443-2448.
55. Meijaard, E. & D. Sheil 2011. A modest proposal for wealthy countries to reforest their land for the common good. Biotropica 43: 544-548.
56. Williams, N. 2007. Orang-utan extinction threat shortens. Curr. Biol. 17: R261.
57. Wich, S., Riswan, J. Jenson, et al 2011. The Orangutan and the Economics of Sustainable Forest Management in Sumatra. UNEP/GRASP/PanEco/YEL/ICRAF/GRID-Arendal.
58. Payne, J. 1987. Surveying orang-utan populations by counting nests from a helicopter: a pilot survey in Sabah. Primate Conserv. 8: 92-103.
59. Blouch, R.A. 1997. Distribution and abundance of orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) and other primates in the Lanjak Entimau wildlife reserve, Sarawak, Malaysia. Trop. Biodivers. 3: 259-274.
60. Meredith, M. 1993. A Faunal Survey of Batang Ai National Park, Sarawak-Malaysia. The Wildlife Conservation Society. New York, NY
61. Jones, M.L. 1982. The orang-utan in captivity. In The Orang-utan: Its Biology and Conservation: 17-37. Dr. W. Junk Publishers. The Hague, Netherlands
62. Bourne, G.H. 1971. The Ape People. Putnam. London
63. Harrisson, B. 1961. Orang utan: what chances of survival. Sarawak Mus. J. 10: 238-261.
64. Nellemann, C., L. Miles, B.P. Kaltenborn, et al 2007. The Last Stand of the Orangutan. State of Emergency: Illegal Logging, Fire, and Palm Oil in Indonesia's National Parks. United Nations Environment Programme-GRID. Arendal, Norway
65. Gaveau, D.L.A., J. Epting, O. Lyne, et al 2009. Evaluating whether protected areas reduce tropical deforestation in Sumatra. J. Biogeogr. 36: 2165-2175.
66. Wind, J. 1996. Gunung Leuser National Park: History, Threats and Options. In Leuser. A Sumatran Sanctuary. C.P. van Schaik & J. Supratna, eds.: 4-27. Perdana Ciptamandiri. Jakarta, Indonesia
67. Wich, S.A., I. Singleton, S.S. Utami-Atmoko, et al 2003. The status of the Sumatran orang-utan Pongo abelii: an update. Oryx 37: 49-54.
68. Meijaard, E. 1997. A Survey of Some Forested Areas in South and Central Tapanuli, North Sumatra; New Chances for Orangutan Conservation. Tropenbos and the Golden Ark. Wageningen.
69. WWF. 2010. Sumatra's Forests, their Wildlife and the Climate. Windows in Time: 1985, 1990, 2000 and 2009 A Quantitative Assessment of Some of Sumatra's Natural Resources submitted as Technical Report by Invitation to the National Forestry Council (DKN) and to the National Development Planning Agency (BAPPENAS) of Indonesia. WWF-Indonesia and BAPPENAS. Jakarta, Indonesia
70. Gaveau, D.L.A., S. Wich, J. Epting, et al 2009. The future of forests and orangutans (Pongo abelii) in Sumatra: predicting impacts of oil palm plantations, road construction, and mechanisms for reducing carbon emissions from deforestation. Env. Res. Lett. 4: 34013.
71. Miettinen, J., C. Shi & S. C. Liew 2011. Deforestation rates in insular Southeast Asia between 2000 and 2010. Glob. Change Biol. 17: 2261-2270.
72. Soehartono, T. & A. Mardiastuti 2001. Kutai National Park: where to go. Trop. Biodivers. 7: 83-101.
73. Robertson, J.M.Y. & C.P. van Schaik 2001. Causal factors underlying the dramatic decline of the Sumatran orang-utan. Oryx 35: 26-38.
74. McMorrow, J. & M.A. Talip 2001. Decline of forest area in Sabah, Malaysia: relationship to state policies, land code and land capability. Glob. Env. Change-Hum. Policy Dimens. 11: 217-230.
75. Berita Polhut. 2011. Vonis Pertama Kasus Perdagangan Orangutan di Indonesia. In Indonesian Forest Ranger's Blog. Available at, Accessed 28/06/2011.
76. Gaveau, D.L.A., M. Linkie, Suyadi, et al 2009. Three decades of deforestation in southwest Sumatra: effects of coffee prices, law enforcement and rural poverty. Biol. Conserv. 142: 597-605.
77. Suryakusuma, J. 2009. Monkeying with the environment? The Jakarta Post. Available at, Accessed 2/12/2009.
78. Grundmann, E. 2006. Back to the wild: will reintroduction and rehabilitation help the long-term conservation of orang-utans in Indonesia? Social Sci. Inf. 45: 265-284.
79. Andau, P.M., L.K. Hiong & J.B. Sale 1994. Translocation of pocketed orang-utans in Sabah. Oryx 28: 263-268.
80. Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation. 2008. Independent Auditors' Report on Financial Transactions for the Years Then Ended December 31, 2007 and 2006 Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation. Balikpapan, Indonesia
81. Campbell-Smith, G., M. Campbell-Smith, I. Singleton, et al 2011. Apes in space: saving an imperilled orangutan population in Sumatra. PLoS One 6: e17210.
82. Campbell-Smith, G., H.V.P. Simanjorang, N. Leader-Williams, et al 2010. Local attitudes and perceptions toward crop-raiding by Orangutans (Pongo abelii) and other nonhuman primates in Northern Sumatra, Indonesia. Am. J. Primatol. 72: 866-876.
83. Sheil, D. & E. Meijaard 2010. Purity and prejudice: deluding ourselves about biodiversity conservation. Biotropica 42: 566-568.
84. Zagt, R., D. Sheil & F.E. Putz 2010. Biodiversity conservation in certified forests: An overview. In Biodiversity Conservation in Certified Forests. D. Sheil, F.E. Putz & R. Zagt, eds.: V-XXVIII. Tropenbos International. Wageningen, The Netherlands
85. Whitten, T., D. Holmes & K. MacKinnon 2001. Conservation biology: a displacement behavior for academia? Conserv. Biol. 15: 1-3.
86. Meijaard, E. & D. Sheil 2007. Is wildlife research useful for wildlife conservation in the tropics? A review for Borneo with global implications. Biod. Cons. 16: 3053-3065.
87. Meijaard, E. 2011. Indonesia Has Its Share Of Scientists, So Where's the Science? The Jakarta Globe. Available at Accessed 24/3/2011.
88. Ostrom, E. & M. Cox 2010. Moving beyond panaceas: a multi-tiered diagnostic approach for social-ecological analysis. Environv. Conserv. 37: 451-463.
89. Liu, J.G., T. Dietz, S.R. Carpenter, et al 2007. Complexity of coupled human and natural systems. Science 317: 1513-1516.
90. Rosa, E.A. & T. Dietz 1998. Climate change and society - Speculation, construction and scientific investigation. Int. Sociol. 13: 421-455.
91. Reyers, B., D.J. Roux & P.J. O'Farrell 2010. Can ecosystem services lead ecology on a transdisciplinary pathway? Environ. Conserv. 37: 501-511.
92. Gowdy, J., C. Hall, K. Klitgaard, et al 2010. What every conservation biologist should know about economic theory. Conserv. Biol. 24: 1440-1447.
93. Caro, T. & P.W. Sherman 2011. Endangered species and a threatened discipline: behavioural ecology. Trends Ecol. Evol. 26: 111-118.
94. van Schaik, C.P., K.A. Monk & J.M.Y. Robertson 2001. Dramatic decline in orang-utan numbers in the Leuser Ecosystem, Northern Sumatra. Oryx 35: 14-25.
95. Fuller, D.O., T.C. Jessup & A. Salim 2004. Loss of forest cover in Kalimantan, Indonesia, since the 1997-1998 El Niño. Conserv. Biol. 18: 249-254.
96. Departmen Kehutanan. 2007. Strategi dan rencana aksi konservasi orangutan Indonesia 2007-2017. Direktorat Jenderal Perlindungan Hutan Dan Konservasi Alam, Departemen Kehutanan (Indonesian Ministry of Forestry). Jakarta, Indonesia
97. Elson, D. 2011. Cost-Benefit Analysis of a Shift to a Low Carbon Economy in the Land Use Sector in Indonesia. UK Climate Change Unit of the British Embassy. Jakarta, Indonesia
98. Simamora, A.P. 2011, 24 March. Govt wants national parks to become 'profit centers'. The Jakarta Post. Available at Accessed on 25/1/2011.
99. Meijaard, E. 2007. We must act now to save orangutans. The Jakarta Post. Available at Accessed 8/1/2007.
100. Ali, R. & S.M. Jacobs 2007. Saving the rainforest through health care: medicine as conservation in Borneo. Int. J. Occup. Environm. Health 13: 295-311.
101. Venter, O., E. Meijaard, H.P. Possingham, et al 2009. Carbon payments as a safeguard for threatened tropical mammals. Conserv. Lett. 2: 123-129.