The need for ontologies: Bridging the barriers of terminology and data structure

Special Paper of the Geological Society of America

Volumn 482, Issue , 2011, Pages 99-123

  Obrst, Leo ^a   Cassidy, Patrick ^b  

^a MITRE CORPORATION   (United States)

^b MICRA Inc   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DATA STRUCTURES; DATABASE SYSTEMS; INTEROPERABILITY; ONTOLOGY; SEMANTICS; TERMINOLOGY;

COMMON SEMANTIC MODELS; COMPLEX APPLICATIONS; DOMAIN ONTOLOGIES; FOUNDATIONAL ONTOLOGIES; NATURAL LANGUAGES; SEMANTIC INTEROPERABILITY; SEMANTIC MODEL; SYSTEM INTEROPERABILITY;

DATA INTEGRATION;

DATABASE; INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY; MODELING; TERMINOLOGY;

EID: 84856558605     PISSN: 00721077     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1130/2011.2482(10)     Document Type: Article

References (109)

1. Akman, V., and Surav, M., 1996, Steps toward formalizing context: AI Magazine, v. 17, no. 3, p. 55-72. (Pubitemid 126669855)
2. Akman, V., and Surav, M., 1997, The use of situation theory in context modeling: Computational Intelligence, v. 13, no. 3, p. 427-438. (Pubitemid 127602722)
3. Barker, K., Porter, B., and Clark, P., 2001, A library of generic concepts for composing knowledge bases, in Proceedings of the K-CAP'01 International Conference on Knowledge Capture, Victoria, Canada: New York, Association for Computing Machinery, p. 14-21; http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/ kbarker/papers/kcap01-content.pdf (accessed May 15, 2011).
4. Barrasa, J., Corcho, Ó., and Gómez-Pérez, A., 2004, R2O, an extensible and semantically based database to ontology mapping language, in Bussler, C., Tannen, V., and Fundulaki, I., eds., Second International Workshop on Semantic Web and Databases, Toronto, Canada Workshop Proceedings: New York, Springer; http://www.cs.man. ac.uk/~ocorcho/documents/SWDB2004- BarrasaEtAl.pdf (accessed May 15, 2011).
5. Basic Formal Ontology (BFO); available in different implementations, as described at http://www.ifomis.uni-saarland.de/bfo (accessed May 15, 2011).
6. Basin, D., D'Agostino, M., Gabbay, D., Matthews, S., and Viganò, L., eds., 2000, Labelled Deduction: Amsterdam, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 266 p.
7. Bechhofer, S., van Harmelen, F., Hendler, J., Horrocks, I., McGuinness, D. L., Patel-Schneider, P. F., and Stein, L. A., 2004, OWL Web Ontology Language Reference, February 10, 2004; http://www.w3.org/TR/owl-ref/(accessed May 15, 2011).
8. Bitters, B., 2002, Feature classification system and associated 3-dimensional model libraries for synthetic environments of the future, in Proceedings of I/ITSEC (Interservice/Industry Training, Simulation and Education Conference) (National Training and Simulation Association NTSA); http://vissim.uwf.edu/Pubs/IITSEC-2002-042.pdf (accessed May 15, 2011).
9. Bizer, C., 2010, The D2RQ Platform-Treating Non-RDF Databases as Virtual RDF Graphs; http://www4.wiwiss.fu-berlin. de/bizer/d2rq/(accessed May 15, 2011).
10. Blackburn, P., 2000, Internalizing labelled deduction, in Proceedings of Hylo'99, First International Workshop on Hybrid Logics: Journal of Logic and Computation, v. 10, no. 1, p. 137-168. (Pubitemid 30583197)
11. Blair, P., Guha, R. V., and Pratt, W., 1992, Microtheories: An Ontological Engineer's Guide: Cycorps Technical Report Cyc-050-92: Austin, Texas, Cycorps.
12. Borgo, S., and Lesmo, L., 2008, The attractiveness of foundational ontologies in industry, in Borgo, S., and Lesmo, L., eds., Proceeding of the 2008 Conference on Formal Ontologies Meet Industry: Amsterdam, the Netherlands, IOS Press, p. 1-9.
13. Bouquet, P., Giunchiglia, F., Van Harmelen, F., Serafini, L., and Stuckenschmidt, H., 2003, OWL: Contextualizing ontologies, in Fensel, D., Sycara, K. P., and Mylopoulos, J., eds., 2nd International Semantic Web Conference (ISWC 2003): Sanibel Island, Florida, October 20-23, 2003: New York, Springer, p. 164-179.
14. Bürger, T., 2008, A benefit estimation model for ontologies, in Poster Proceedings of the 5th European Semantic Web Conference (ESWC), Tenerife, Spain, June 1-5, 2008; http://ontocom.sti-innsbruck.at/docs/eswc2008- benefitestimation.pdf (accessed May 15, 2011).
15. Bürger, T., and Simperl, E., 2008, Measuring the benefits of ontologies, in Meersman, R., Tari, Z., and Herrero, P., eds., On The Move to Meaningful Internet Systems, OTM 2008 Workshops: Berlin, Heidelberg, Springer Verlag. Includes Proceedings of Ontology Content and Evaluation in Enterprise (OntoContent '08), Monterrey, Mexico, November 9-14, 2008, p. 584-594.
16. Casati, R., and Varzi, A. C., 1999, Parts and Places: The Structures of Spatial Representation: Cambridge, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 238 p.
17. Cassidy, P., 2008, COSMO ontology, http://micra.com/COSMO/(accessed May 16, 2011).
18. Cohn, A. G., and Gotts, N. M., 1996, The 'egg-yolk' representation of regions with indeterminate boundaries, in Burrough, P., and Frank, A. M., eds., Geographical Objects with Undetermined Boundaries: London, Taylor & Francis, p. 171-188.
19. Command and Control (C2) Core, 2010, http://www.jfcom.mil/about/fact- c2core.html (accessed May 16, 2011).
20. Critchlow, T., Ganesh, M., and Musick, R., 1998, Automatic generation of warehouse mediators using an ontology engine, in Proceedings of the 5th KRDB (Knowledge Representation Meets DataBases) workshop: Seattle, Washington, May 1998; http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen. de/Publications/CEUR-WS/Vol-10/ (accessed May 16, 2011).
21. Cruz, I. F., and Sunna, W., 2008, Structural alignment methods with applications to geospatial ontologies, in Janowicz, K., Raubal, M., Schwering, A., and Kuhn, W., eds., Special Issue on Semantic Similarity Measurement and Geospatial Applications: Transactions in GIS, v. 12, no. 6, December 2008: Hoboken, New Jersey, Wiley-Blackwell, p. 683-711.
22. Daconta, M., Obrst, L., and Smith, K., 2003, The Semantic Web: A Guide to the Future of XML, Web Services, and Knowledge Management: Indianapolis, Wiley Publishing, 312 p.
23. Ehrig, M., 2007, Ontology Alignment: Bridging the Semantic Gap: New York, Springer Science+Business Media, 247 p.
24. Euzenat, J., and Shvaiko, P., 2007, Ontology Matching: Berlin, Heidelburg, Springer-Verlag, 333 p.
25. Federal Enterprise Architecture Reference Ontology (FEA-RMO), http://web-services.gov/fea-rmo.html (accessed May 16, 2011).
26. Fernández-López, M., and Gómez-Pérez, A., 2004, Searching for a time ontology for semantic web applications, in Varzi, A. C., and Vieu, L., eds., Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Formal Ontology in Information Systems (FOIS-2004), Turín, Italy, November 4-6, 2004: Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence and Applications, v. 114: Amsterdam, IOS Press, p. 331-341; http://www.iospress.nl/loadtop/load.php? isbn=faia (accessed May 16, 2011.)
27. Fonseca, F., Davis, C., and Câmara, G., 2003, Bridging ontologies and conceptual schemas in geographic information integration: GeoInformatica, v. 7, p. 355-378, doi:10.1023/A:1025573406389. (Pubitemid 37358594)
28. Gabbay, D., 1996, Labelled Deductive Systems: Principles and Applications. Volume 1: Introduction: Oxford, UK, Oxford University Press, 512 p.
29. Geospatial Markup Language (GML): http://www.opengeospatial.org/ standards/gml (accessed May 16, 2011).
30. Giunchiglia, F., and Bouquet, P., 1997, Introduction to Contextual Reasoning: An Artificial Intelligence Perspective: Trento, Italy, Istituto per la Ricerca Scientifica e Tecnological (IRST) Technical Report 9705-19, May 1997, 22 p.
31. Giunchiglia, F., and Bouquet, P., 1998, A Context-Based Framework for Mental Representation: Trento, Italy, Istituto per la Ricerca Scientifica e Tecnologica (IRST) Technical Report 9807-02, July 1998, 7 p.
32. Giunchiglia, F., and Ghidini, C., 1998, Local models semantics, or contextual reasoning = locality + compatibility, in Cohn, A., Schubert, L., and Shapiro, S., eds., Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Principles of Knowledge Representation and Reasoning (KR'98), Trento, Italy, June 2-5, 1998: San Francisco, Morgan Kaufmann, p. 282-289.
33. Grenon, P., 2003a, BFO in a Nutshell: A Bi-Categorial Axiomatization of BFO and Comparison with DOLCE: IFOMIS (Institute for Formal Ontology and Medical Information Science), University of Leipzig, Technical Report 06/2003; http://www.ifomis.org/Research/IFOMISReports/IFOMIS%20Report%2006-2003.pdf (accessed May 16, 2011), 37 p.
34. Grenon, P., 2003b, Spatio-Temporality in Basic Formal Ontology: SNAP and SPAN, Upper Level Ontology, and Framework of Formalization (Part I): IFOMIS (Institute for Formal Ontology and Medical Information Science, University of Leipzig), Technical Report Series 05/2003; http://www.ifomis.org/Research/ IFOMISReports/IFOMIS%20Report%2005-2003.pdf (accessed May 16, 2011).
35. Grenon, P., and Smith, B., 2004, SNAP and SPAN: Towards dynamic geospatial ontology: Spatial Cognition and Computation, v. 4, no. 1, p. 69-104.
36. Gruninger, M., Bodenreider, O., Olken, F., Obrst, L., and Yim, P., 2008, Ontology, taxonomy, folksonomy: Understanding the distinctions: Journal of Applied Ontology, v. 3, no. 3, p. 191-200.
37. Guarino, N., 1998, Formal ontology and information systems, in Formal Ontology in Information Systems ("FOIS"), Proceedings of FOIS'98, Trento, Italy, June 6-8, 1998: Amsterdam, IOS Press, p. 3-15.
38. Guha, R. V., 1991, Contexts: A Formalization and Some Applications [Ph. D. thesis]: Stanford, California, Stanford University, 146 p.
39. Guo, C.-M., 1989, Constructing a Machine-Tractable Dictionary from the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English [Ph. D. thesis]: Las Cruces, New Mexico State University, 140 p. Available from University Microfilms International, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
40. Haase, P., Honavar, V., Kutz, O., Sure, Y., and Tamilin, A., eds., 2006, Proceedings of the 1st International Workshop on Modular Ontologies (WoMO'06), Athens, Georgia, November 5, 2006. Available from Sun SITE Central Europe (CEUR) Workshop Proceedings, v. 232, and at http://ftp.informatik.rwth-aachen. de/Publications/CEUR-WS/Vol-232/(accessed May 16, 2011).
41. Hayes, P., 1996, A Catalog of Temporal Theories: University of Illinois Technical Report UIUCBI-AI-96-01, http://www.ihmc.us/groups/phayes/wiki/a3817/ attachments/e15ba/TimeCatalog.pdf (accessed May 16, 2011).
42. Hazarika, S. M., and Cohn, A. G., 2001, A taxonomy for spatial vagueness: An alternative egg-yolk interpretation, in Proceedings of SVUG'01 (SunGard Virtual User Group), 2001; http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10. 1.1.8.2852&rep=rep1&type=pdf (accessed May 16, 2011).
43. Hobbs, J. R., and Pan, F., 2004, An ontology of time for the semantic web, in ACM Transactions on Asian Language Information Processing, v. 3, no. 1: New York, Association for Computing Machinery, p. 66-85; http://citeseerx.ist. psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.94.9478&rep=rep1&type=pdf (accessed May 16, 2011).
44. Imtiaz, A., Bürger, T., Popov, I. O., and Simperl, E., 2009, Framework for value prediction of knowledge-based applications, in 1st Workshop on the Economics of Knowledge-Based Technologies (ECONOM 2009) in conjunction with 12th International Conference on Business Information Systems (BIS 2009), Poznan, Poland, April 27-29, 2009; http://ontocom.sti-innsbruck.at/docs/ ECONOM2009.pdf (accessed May16, 2011).
45. Kahlert, R. C., and Sullivan, J., 2006, Microtheories, in von Hahn, W., and Vertan, C., eds., First International Workshop: Ontology Based Modeling in the Humanitiesv, April 7-8, 2006: Report FBI-HH-B-264-06: Hamburg, Germany, University of Hamburg, p. 56-66; http://clio-knows.sourceforge.net/ Microtheories-v2.pdf (accessed May 16, 2011).
46. Kalfoglou, Y., and Schorlemmer, M., 2003, Mapping: The state of the art: The Knowledge Engineering Review, v. 18, no. 1, p. 1-31, doi:10.1017/ S0269888903000651.
47. Kalfoglou, Y., and Schorlemmer, M., 2004, Ontology mapping: The state of the art, in Sheth, A., Staab, S., and Uschold, M., eds., Dagstuhl Seminar Proceedings on Semantic Interoperability and Integration. Internationales Begegnungs-und Forschungszentrum (IBFI): Schloss Dagstuhl, Germany, 40 p.; http://drops.dagstuhl.de/opus/volltexte/2005/40/pdf/04391. KalfoglouYannis. Paper.40.pdf (accessed May 16, 2011).
48. Laclavik, M., 2006, RDB2Onto: Relational database data to ontology individuals mapping, in Navrat, P., et al., eds., Tools for Acquisition, Organization, and Presenting of Information and Knowledge: Bratislava, Vydavatelstvo STU, 2006, Workshop, Nizke Tatry, Slovakia, September 29-30: Bratislava, Slovakia, Vydavate© stvo STU, Vazovova 5, p. 86-89; http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.64.998&rep= rep1&type=pdf (accessed May 16, 2011).
49. Lenat, D., 1998, The Dimensions of Context-Space: Austin, Texas, Cycorp, Technical Report; http://www.cyc.com/doc/context-space.pdf (accessed May 16, 2011).
50. Lenat, D., Witbrock, M., Baxter, D., Blackstone, E., Deaton, C., Schneider, D., Scott, J., and Shepard, B., 2010, Harnessing Cyc to answer clinical researchers' ad hoc queries: AI Magazine, v. 31, no. 3, p. 13-32. Also available at http://www.cyc.com/technology/whitepapers-dir/Harnessing-Cyc-to- Answer-Clincal-Researchers-ad-hoc-Queries.pdf (accessed May 16, 2011).
51. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (new ed.), 1987, Essex, UK, Longman Group, 1229 + 82 p.
52. Mapping the Human Terrain (MAP-HT), 1997, a Joint Capabilities Technical Demonstration (JCTD) Project led by the Army. Public information is available at http://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/Human-terrain-system and http://www.army.mil/- news/2010/10/12/46426-socio-cultural-data-collection-provides-insight-for- commanders/and http://www.memestreams.net/users/pnw/blogid783316 (all accessed May 16, 2011).
53. Mascardi, V., Cordì, V., and Rosso, P., 2006, A Comparison of Upper Ontologies: Technical Report from Dipartimento di Informatica e Scienze dell'Informazione (DISI), Genoa, Italy: Report DISI-TR-06-21, http://www.disi.unige.it/person/MascardiV/Download/DISI-TR-06-21.pdf (accessed May 16, 2011).
54. Masolo, C., Borgo, S., Gangemi, A., Guarino, N., and Oltramari, A., 2003, Wonderweb Deliverable D18: Ontology Library (final): Trento, Italy, Laboratory for Applied Ontology, ISTC-CNR, 349 p.; www.loa-cnr.it/Papers/D18.pdf (accessed May 16, 2011). Versions of the ontology itself are available at http://www.loa-cnr.it/DOLCE.html (accessed May 16, 2011).
55. McCarthy, J., 1990, Formalizing Common Sense: Papers by John McCarthy: Norwood, New Jersey, Ablex Publishing Corporation, 256 p.
56. McCarthy, J., 1993, Notes on formalizing context, in Bajcsy, R., ed., Proceedings of the Thirteenth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, August 28-September 3, 1993: Chambéry, France, Morgan Kaufmann.
57. McCarthy, J., and Buvač, S., 1997, Formalizing context (expanded notes), in Aliseda, A., van Glabbeek, R., and Westerståhl, D., eds., Computing Natural Language: Stanford, California, Stanford University, p. 13-50; http://www-formal.stanford.edu/buvac/formalizing-context.ps (accessed May 16, 2011).
58. McGuinness, D. L., Fikes, R., Rice, J., and Wilder, S., 2000, An environment for merging and testing large ontologies, in Cohn, A. G., Giunchiglia, F., and Selman, B., eds., Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Principles of Knowledge Representation and Reasoning (KR2000), Breckenridge, Colorado, April 12-15, 2000: San Francisco, California, Morgan Kaufmann, p. 483-493; http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1. 109.1812&rep=rep1&type=pdf (accessed May 16, 2011).
59. Menzel, C., 1999, The objective conception of context and its logic: Minds and Machines, v. 9, no. 1, p. 29-56, doi:10.1023/A:1008390129138.
60. Meseguer, J., 1998, Formal interoperability, in Proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium on Artificial Intelligence and Mathematics, Fort Lauderdale, Florida, January 4-6, 1998; http://rutcor.rutgers.edu/~amai/ aimath98/Extended-Abstracts/JMeseguer.ps (accessed May 16, 2011).
61. MIDB, 2011, The Modernized Integrated Database (MIDB), http://www.fas.org/irp/program/disseminate/midb.htm (accessed May 17, 2011).
62. MIEM, 2008, The Maritime Information Exchange Model, http://faculty.nps. edu/fahayesr/miem.html and references therein (accessed May 16, 2011).
63. Mitchell, T. M., Shinkareva, S. V., Carlson, A., Chang, K.-M., Malave, V. L., Mason, R. A., and Just, M. A., 2008, Predicting human brain activity associated with the meanings of nouns: Science, v. 320, p. 1191, doi:10.1126/science.1152876. (Pubitemid 351929502)
64. Musen, M., and Noy, N., 2002, Evaluating ontology mapping tools: Requirements and experience, http://bmir.stanford.edu/file-asset/index.php/57/ BMIR-2002-0936.pdf (accessed May 16, 2011).
65. National Building Information Model Standard, 2011, http://www.wbdg.org/ (accessed May 17, 2011).
66. National Information Exchange Model (NIEM), 2011, http://www.niem.gov/ (accessed May 17, 2011).
67. Niles, I., and Pease, A., 2001, Towards a standard upper ontology, in Welty, C., and Smith, B., eds., Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Formal Ontology in Information Systems (FOIS-2001), Ogunquit, Maine, October 17-19, 2001: New York, ACM Press, p. 2-9; http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/ download?doi=10.1.1.75.2093&rep=rep1&type=pdf (accessed May 16, 2011).
68. Noy, N. F., and Musen, M. A., 2000, PROMPT: Algorithm and tool for automated ontology merging and alignment, in Seventeenth National Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI-2000), Menlo Park, California, Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence: Paper available as Stanford Medical Informatics, Stanford University Technical Report SMI-2000-0831, p. 450-455, http://bmir.stanford.edu/file-asset/index.php/159/BMIR-2000-0831.pdf (accessed May 16, 2011).
69. Oberle, D., 2006, Semantic Management of Middleware: New York, Springer, 276 p.
70. Obrst, L., 2002, Review of "Qualitative Spatial Reasoning with Topological Information," by Jochen Renz, 2002, Springer-Verlag: Association for Computing Machinery Computing Reviews.
71. Obrst, L., 2003, Ontologies for semantically interoperable systems, in Frieder, O., Hammer, J., Quershi, S., and Seligman, L., eds., Proceedings of the Twelfth Association for Computing Machinery International Conference on Information and Knowledge Management (CIKM 2003), New Orleans, Louisiana, November 3-8: New York, Association for Computing Machinery, p. 366-369; http://portal.acm.org/citation. cfm?id=956863.956932 (accessed May 16, 2011). (Pubitemid 40673562)
72. Obrst, L., 2010, Ontological architectures, in Poli, R., Seibt, J., and Kameas, A., eds., TAO-Theory and Applications of Ontology, vol. 2: Computer Applications: New York, Springer, p. 27-67.
73. Obrst, L., and Nichols, D., 2005, Context and ontologies: Contextual indexing of ontological expressions, in Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence 2005 Workshop on Context and Ontologies, poster (AAAI 2005), Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, July 9-13, 2005; http://www.mitre.org/work/ tech-papers/tech-papers-05/05-0903/index.html (accessed May 16, 2011).
74. Obrst, L., Whittaker, G., and Meng, A., 1999, Semantic context for object exchange, in Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) Workshop on Context in AI Applications, Orlando, Florida, July 19, 1999; http://www.aaai.org/Papers/Workshops/1999/WS-99-14/WS99-14-014.pdf (accessed May 16, 2011).
75. Obrst, L., Cassidy, P., Ray, S., Smith, B., Soergel, D., West, M., and Yim, P., 2006, The 2006 Upper Ontology Summit Joint Communiqué: Journal of Applied Ontology. v. 1, no. 2, p. 203-211.
76. Obrst, L., Ceusters, W., Mani, I., Ray, S., and Smith, B., 2007, The evaluation of ontologies: Toward improved semantic interoperability, in Baker, C. J. O., and Cheung, K. H., eds., Semantic Web: Revolutionizing Knowledge Discovery in the Life Sciences: New York, Springer, p. 139-158.
77. Obrst, L., Janssen, T., and Ceusters, W., eds., 2010a, Ontologies and Semantic Technologies for Intelligence: Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence and Applications: Amsterdam, the Netherlands, IOS Press, Book Series, v. 213, 227 p.
78. Obrst, L., Stoutenburg, S., McCandless, D., Nichols, D., Franklin, P., Prausa, M., and Sward, R., 2010b, Ontologies for rapid integration of heterogeneous data for command, control, and intelligence, in Obrst, L., Janssen, T., and Ceusters, W., eds., Ontologies and Semantic Technologies for the Intelligence Community: Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence and Applications: Amsterdam, the Netherlands, IOS Press, Book Series, v. 213, p. 71-90.
79. Ontolingua, 1994, The Physical Quantities ontology: "Theory Physical Quantities"; http://www.ksl.stanford.edu/htw/dme/thermal-kb-tour/physical- quantities.html (accessed May 16, 2011).
80. OpenCyc, 2011, The OpenCyc ontology, http://cyc.com/cyc/opencyc (accessed May 16, 2011).
81. Parmelee, M., 2007, The Vocabulary Driven Value Chain: Department of Defense (DoD) Community of Interest (COI) Forum, July 31, 2007; http://semanticommunity.info/@api/deki/files/6978/=MParmelle07312007.ppt (accessed May 17, 2011).
82. Poli, R., 2003, Descriptive, formal and formalized ontologies, in Fisette, D., ed., Husserl's Logical Investigations Reconsidered: Dordrecht, Netherlands, Kluwer, p. 193-210.
83. Poli, R., 2010, The categorial stance, in Poli, R., Seibt, J., Healy, M., and Kameas, A., eds., Theory and Applications of Ontology, vol. 1: Philosophical Perspectives: Berlin, Springer, p. 1-22.
84. Poli, R., and Obrst, L., 2010, The interplay between ontology as categorial analysis and ontology as technology, in Poli, R., Healy, M., and Kameas, A., eds., Theory and Applications of Ontology, vol. 2: Computer Applications: New York, Springer, p. 1-26.
85. QUDT, 2011, Quantities, Units, Dimensions, and Data Types (QUDT) ontology: Quantities, Units, Dimensions and Data Types in OWL and XML. Maintained by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, http://www.qudt.org/(accessed May 16, 2011).
86. QUOMOS, 2011, The Quantities and Units of Measure Ontology Standard (QUOMOS) TC, an OASIS (Advancing Open Standards for the Information Society) Technical Committee, http://www.oasis-open.org/committees/tc-home.php?wg-abbrev= quomos (accessed May16, 2011).
87. Randall, D. A., Cui, Z., and Cohn, A. G., 1992, A spatial logic based on regions and connection, in Nebel, B., Swartout, W., and Rich, C., eds., Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Principles of Knowledge Representation and Reasoning, Cambridge, Massachusetts, October 1992: San Francisco, Morgan Kaufmann, p. 165-176.
88. Renz, J., 2002, Qualitative spatial reasoning with topological information: Lecture notes in Computer Science, v. 2293: Artificial Intelligence: Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 201 p.
89. Samuel, K., Obrst, L., Stoutenberg, S., Fox, K., Franklin, P., Johnson, A., Laskey, K., Nichols, D., Lopez, S., and Peterson, J., 2008, Applying prolog to semantic web ontologies and rules: Moving toward description logic programs: The Journal of the Theory and Practice of Logic Programming (TPLP), v. 8, no. 3, p. 301-322. (Pubitemid 351614273)
90. Schneider, L., 2003, How to build a foundational ontology: The object-centered high-level reference ontology OCHRE, in Günter, A., Kruse, R., and Neumann, B., eds., Proceedings of the 26th Annual German Conference on AI (KI 2003): Advances in Artificial Intelligence, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, v. 2821: New York, Springer, p. 120-134.
91. Schuurman, N., and Leszczynski, A., 2006, Ontology-based metadata: Transactions in GIS, v. 10, no. 5, p. 709-726. (Pubitemid 44575459)
92. Semy, S., Pulvermacher, M., and Obrst, L., 2005, Toward the Use of an Upper Ontology for U. S. Government and U. S. Military Domains: An Evaluation: MITRE Technical Report, MTR 04B0000063, November 2005; http://www.mitre.org/ work/tech-papers/tech-papers-05/04-1175/index.html (accessed May 16, 2011).
93. SigmaKEE, 2011, Sigma Knowledge Engineering Environment (SigmaKEE), http://sourceforge.net/projects/sigmakee/(accessed May 16, 2011).
94. Simperl, E., Tempich, C., and Sure, Y., 2006, ONTOCOM (ONTOlogy COst Model): A cost estimation model for ontology engineering, in Cruz, I., et al., eds., Proceedings of the International Semantic Web Conference (ISWC 2006): New York, Springer, p. 625-639. More information on ONTOCOM is available at http://ontocom.ag-nbi.de/(accessed May 16, 2011). (Pubitemid 44892061)
95. Simperl, E., Popov, I. O., and Bürger, T., 2009, ONTOCOM revisited: Towards accurate cost predictions for ontology development projects, in Aroyo, L., et al., eds., Proceedings of the European Semantic Web Conference 2009 (ESWC'09), Heraklion, Greece, May 20-June 4, 2009: New York, Springer, p. 248-262.
96. Smith, B., Vizenor, L., and Schoening, J., 2009, Universal core semantic layer, in Proceedings of the Ontologies for the Intelligence Community (OIC) Conference, October 20-22, 2009: Fairfax, Virginia, George Mason University; http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen. de/Publications/CEUR-WS/Vol-555/paper5. pdf (accessed May 16, 2011).
97. Sowa, J., 2010, Building, Sharing, and Merging Ontologies, http://www.jfsowa.com/ontology/ontoshar.htm (accessed July 5, 2011).
98. STEP, 2011, Standard for the Exchange of Product Model Data (STEP), ISO 10303: http://www.tc184-sc4.org/SC4-Open/SC4%20Legacy%20Products%20%282001-1983 08%29/STEP-%2810303%29/(accessed May 16, 2011).
99. Stoutenburg, S., 2009, Advancing Ontology Alignment: New Methods for Biomedical Ontology Alignment Using Non-Equivalence Relations [Ph. D. thesis]: Colorado Springs, University of Colorado, 222 p.; http://www.cs.uccs.edu/ ~kalita/work/StudentResearch/StoutenburgPhDThesis2009.pdf (accessed May 16, 2011).
100. Stoutenburg, S., Obrst, L., Nichols, D., Franklin, P., Samuel, K., and Prausa, M., 2007a, Ontologies and rules for rapid enterprise integration and event aggregation: Vocabularies, ontologies, and rules for the enterprise (VORTE 07), EDOC 2007 (2007 Eleventh International IEEE EDOC Conference Workshop): Annapolis, Maryland, doi: 10.1109/EDOCW.2007.22.
101. Stoutenburg, S., Obrst, L., McCandless, D., Nichols, D., Franklin, P., Prausa, M., and Sward, R., 2007b, Ontologies for rapid integration of heterogeneous data for command, control, and intelligence, in Ontologies for the Intelligence Community Conference: Columbia, Maryland; http://citeseerx.ist. psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.142.9502&rep=rep1&type=pdf (accessed May 16, 2011).
102. Suggested Upper Merged Ontology (SUMO), 2001, http://www.ontologyportal. org/(accessed May 17, 2011).
103. Sunna, W., and Cruz, I. F., 2007, Structure-based methods to enhance geospatial ontology alignment geospatial semantics, in Second International Conference (GeoS): New York, Springer, Lecture Notes in Computer Science 4853, p. 82-97.
104. UCore, 2009, Universal Core (UCore), http://cio-nii.defense.gov/ initiatives/ucore.shtml (accessed May 16, 2011).
105. Vampire First-Order Logic Theorem-Prover, 2009, http://www.vprover.org/ (accessed May 17, 2011).
106. Wache, H., Vögele, T., Visser, U., Stuckenschmidt, H., Schuster, G., Neumann, H., and Hübner, S., 2001, Ontology-based integration of information-A survey of existing approaches, in Proceedings of the International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence 2001 (IJCAI-01) Workshop on Ontologies and Information Sharing, Seattle, Washington, p. 108-117. Proceedings available at http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.13. 3504&rep=rep1&type=pdf (accessed May 16, 2011).
107. Wilks, Y., Slator, B., and Guthrie, L., 1996, Electric Words: Dictionaries, Computers, and Meanings: Cambridge, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 289 p.
108. Winters, L., and Tolk, A., 2009, C2 domain ontology within our lifetime, in Proceedings of the 14th International Command and Control Research and Technology Symposium (ICCRTS): Washington, D. C., June 15-17, 2009; http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA503107&Location=U2&doc= GetTRDoc.pdf 59 pages (accessed May 16, 2011).
109. Wisnosky, D. E., 2010, Semantic Technology in the Department of Defense, Business Mission Area, in Semantic Technology for Intelligence, Defense, and Security (STIDS) Conference 2010, October 26-29, 2010: Fairfax, Virginia, George Mason University; http://stids.c4i.gmu.edu/presentations/STIDS-Keynote- Wisnosky.pdf (accessed May 16, 2011).